the Temple. Hyrcanus was re-established, but without taking the title or the diadem of a king, and on condition of restoring to Syria the conquests of the Maccabees, and of paying an annual tribute.

After Pompey had thus reduced Syria, and many other countries of Asia Minor to Roman provinces, he returned with immense plunder to Rome, and conducted the most magni-ficent triumph that had ever been seen at the metropolis.

CHAPTER XXIII.

JULIUS CÆSAR.-BEGINNINGS.

WHEN Pompey presented the institutions which he had made in the conquered lands of Asia, to be confirmed by the senate, a great number of the most distinguished men dissented from them. The opposition had already gone great lengths, and Pompey was in the act of losing his whole power, when suddenly and unexpectedly an influential friend appeared to him in this emergency. This was Julius Cæsar, the greatest of the Romans.

Descended from a distinguished family, related by his aunt to Marius, educated with tender care by his mother, Aurelia, he had attracted attention even as a young man by bidding defiance to the mighty Sulla. Having married Cornelia, a daughter of Cinna, he received orders from Sulla to divorce his wife, but with noble resolution he replied that he would not divorce the wife he loved at the command of any man. Accordingly he was obliged to fly from Rome and let his property be confiscated, but even in exile he found no rest, and was obliged to seek a new shelter every night in order to avoid assassins. Meanwhile several influential friends had interceded for him and obtained his pardon, but Sulla in granting it uttered the memorable words: "Well, you may have it" (his pardon), "but know that the man for whom you beg it will one day ruin your power, for under Cæsar many Mariuses are concealed."

Cæsar had not a vigorous natural frame, but had to combat with several illnesses, as was attested by his pallid, meagre countenance. Nevertheless, by great moderation in eating and drinking, and by all kinds of physical exercise, he managed to strengthen and harden his body to such a degree that he easily

bore all the fatigues of war. As he lost his father at an early age, his mother, Aurelia, watched over his education, and this excellent lady did this with so great care and ability that Cæsar, even as a young man, was numbered among the most cultivated and highly instructed Romans. His mother taught him with special care to be courteous in his intercourse, by which he made himself universally beloved afterwards, and she instilled into him that eloquence, which made him one of the most eminent orators of ancient times.

Cæsar made once a journey to Asia to perfect himself in the art of rhetoric. On this journey he fell into the hands of pirates, who carried on their nefarious business in all parts of the Mediterranean. The pirates demanded for his ransom the sum of 20 talents (about £3000), but on hearing this he laughed at their not asking more for such a man as he, and promised fifty. While he sent his companions to collect the money he remained six weeks on the vessel, but during that interval he made himself so popular among the pirates that he appeared not to be their captive but their master. When he wanted to sleep he bade them keep quiet, and they did not venture to disturb him. Sometimes he amused himself by reading to them poems that he had composed. If they did not admire them, he upbraided them as barbarians, and threatened to have them all crucified as soon as he was free. At length his people brought the fifty talents' ransom. But Cæsar did not forget his second promise, for as soon as he was free he fitted out several ships, pursued the pirates, overtook them, captured their vessel, seized their treasure, and brought them to the coast of Asia Minor, where his orders were easily carried out to have all the pirates crucified.

After the death of Sulla, Cæsar returned to Rome, where he gained many friends by his liberality and eloquence. He had long placed before him the high aim which he ultimately reached after long struggles, but he knew how to conceal his plans from those in power in the most masterly manner. He appeared only to be occupied with his pleasures, dressed handsomely, anointed with sweet perfumes, and only associated with merry people. Soon, however, he began to canvass for political appointments, and went first as quæstor to Spain. On his journey he came to a small and poor little town in the Alps. One of his company asked him on this occasion if violent contentions took place there also in order to obtain appointments. Cæsar replied, "For my part I would rather be the first in this village than the second at Rome."

In a city of Spain he once entered a temple adorned with the effigies of distinguished heroes. He stood still, greatly moved, in front of the statue of Alexander, and shedding many tears exclaimed: "At my age he had already conquered the world, and I as yet have done nothing."

Returning to Rome he was made ædile. As such he had to provide the public games; but those which he gave surpassed in splendour all that had been hitherto seen. Among other displays was that of 300 gladiators in gilded armour. By these and other popular acts he became the general favourite of the multitude. And now he offered himself as candidate for the office of pontifex maximus, hitherto filled only by the most highly respected senators. Doubtful and weeping his mother. accompanied him to the door on the day of his election, and parting from her he said: "Mother, thou seest me again either as pontiff or an exile." He was elected by the people, to the great terror of the senators, who now perceived how correctly Sulla had judged the soaring spirit of the man. Now was the time when Cæsar allied himself to Pompey and his most powerful rival, Crassus, the richest man at Rome, thus forming the government known as the First Triumvirate.

Cæsar began by offering his services to Pompey, promising to aid him in securing the passing of his acts in spite of the opposition of the senate. Pompey, delighted at having obtained the support of so influential a person, granted his countenance and protection to Cæsar, who then applied to Crassus, with whom he had been formerly connected. Finding Pompey and Crassus averse to union, Cæsar brought them together, effected a reconciliation, and formed a combination with both, by which they agreed that nothing should be done in the Commonwealth without their mutual concurrence and approbation. By this Triumvirate the constitution was weakened by a new interest very different from that of the senate or the people, and yet dependent on both

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.-CÆSAR IN GAUL AND BRITAIN.

By Cæsar's connection with Pompey and Crassus the whole administration of the state had passed into the hands of these three men. Without asking the consent of the senate or the

people, they divided the Roman provinces between them, for all opposition was quashed by the power of the three confederates. After Cæsar had finished his consulship, he proceeded to the province that he had chosen for himself. This was France, then named Gaul, at that time occupied by many tribes hostile to each other, and offering a fine field for many wars and triumphant enterprises.

The Gallic war leading to the entire subjugation of Gaul to Roman arms occupied eight years, during which Cæsar passed into Britain, twice advanced beyond London, and crossing the Rhine penetrated into Germany. These extraordinary successes filled Cæsar's soldiers with the greatest admiration and the blindest trust in their great leader; he inured them to perfect discipline by blending gentleness with a wholesome severity, and he effectually won them by his liberality and popular manners. At the outset of his campaigns in Gaul he defeated a force of Helvetii, or Swiss, who, issuing from their native country 360,000 strong, under a chief, Orgetorix, had invaded Gaul to obtain a wider and more fertile territory. The decisive battles in which these people were defeated, and nearly destroyed, were fought on the river Saône (Arar), and near Autun (Bibracte), (B.C. 58). In the course of the same year Cæsar totally defeated a German force about Besançon (Vesontio) under Ariovistus, who had attacked the duan Gauls, allies of the Romans. The first encounters of the Romans with the Germans had not been successful, for the vast size, immense number, and invincible bravery of these Teutones had inspired the legions with great terror. When Cæsar perceived this he called together the soldiers, reminded them of the victories of their forefathers over the Cimbri and Teutones, and he told them that he could rely on the fidelity and obedience of the greater part. Then he promised to let all those depart who were afraid to fight, and continued: "I shall give the signal for starting this very night, and we shall directly see those in whom cowardice or ambition prevails. If no one else will follow me I shall immediately attack the enemy with the tenth legion only. I do not doubt its fidelity, and it shall be henceforth my body-guard."

Touched by these words the tenth legion thanked its commander for his great confidence, the remainder were ashamed of their pusillanimity, begged for forgiveness, and endeavoured by splendid deeds to atone for their fault. The Germans were beaten and driven over the Rhine.

Cæsar's second campaign was directed against the Belgians

(Belgæ), then occupying modern Belgium and North-East France, and whom Cæsar pronounces, in his "Commentaries," to be far the bravest of all the Gauls. The campaign was concluded by a complete triumph over the Nervii, the most warlike of the Belgæ, who were defeated with such immense carnage that only 500 remained out of 60,000. The senate, on receiving from Cæsar intelligence of this victory, decreed a public thanksgiving of fifteen days, a distinction never hitherto conferred on a Roman. The third campaign (B.c. 56) completed the subjugation of Gaul. During his temporary absence in Illyria the Veneti, or Gaulish tribe on the sea-board of La Vendée, the most commercial people and most expert sailors of that part of Gaul, had formed an insurrection, defying at first the efforts of his lieutenant, P. Crassus, with the seventh legion. Cæsar, apprised of the event, hurried to the scene of action, and building a number of galleys on the Loire, which he ordered to be manned by Mediterranean sailors, he attacked the Veneti, who accepted battle with 200 ships. The whole of their squadron was defeated in this naval engagement, in which the best men of the nation fell and which led the senators to conclude peace on disastrous terms. The fate of the Veneti was cruel. Their senate was inhumanly put to death, and the rest of the nation were sold into slavery.

The fourth campaign was taken up with a passage of the Rhine, an invasion of Britain, and the subjugation of insurrections in Gaul (B.c. 55). The German war presents two episodes. The Suevi (Suabians) having invaded Gaul in the absence of Cæsar, he passed the Alps encumbered with winter snow, and surprising the Germans, who were crowded on a tongue of land between the Rhine and Meuse, he destroyed them almost entirely. Cæsar having perceived the necessity of alarming the Germans, crossed the Rhine and inspired a dread of the Roman arms among the neighbouring tribes. The great event of the year (B.c. 55) was Cæsar's first invasion of Great Britain. Much dispute exists about the starting-place of Cæsar in Gaul, and the spot on which he first landed in England. But thus much is quite certain. The Britons had given aid to their relations the Gauls, particularly to the Veneti, against the Romans, and Cæsar resolved to chastise them in England. Professor Long pronounces the port where Cæsar usually started, Portus Itius, to be Wissant, a village between Boulogne and Calais, near Cape Grisnez (Promontorium Itium). Others, including the late Emperor Napoleon III., think Itius to be Boulogne. Anyhow, it must have been Boulogne, Ambleteuse, or Wissant, from