one single state, to which this double name was merely given, because the kings of Hungary had formerly enjoyed those titles.

The name of Lodomiria is not to be found in any maps; that of Gallicia should be written with a tz, (Gallitzia,) in order to approach the Polish etymology. The Karpathian mountains, and their branches, occupy the south part of Russia. Leaving these alps of Sarmatia, agreeable and diversified hills lose themselves in the plains of Wolhynia and the Ukraine. The sandy districts of Little Poland extend to Russia; these sands begin near Cracow, and continue to Zamosa, and beyond Leszainsk, verging towards Lemberg. The country of Pokutia, which is between the Pruth and the Dneister, is filled with considerable marshes; but, in general, the soil of this kingdom may be divided into three divisions, almost equal. The mountains and marshes form the first, where the plough cannot pass; the second is formed by the plains of moving sand, which rarely produce any winter grains; the third is good arable and pasture, which yields five and six bushels for one: this latter produces all sorts of grain, but chiefly wheat, oats, and barley. The best lands are in the cantons to the eastward of Lemberg, and in some parts of the circle of Belzk. In general, in good seasons, they reckon on a return of about five bushels for one; as to the sandy parts, they seldom sow corn there, but when that is the case, the harvest never yields more than one fourth, oftener one third, and that in the best seasons. Asparagus, water-melons, and many other plants, grow spontaneously, and in abundance; the juniper is a very common shrub: in the neighbourhood of Lemberg there were a few vineyards, but the rigour of the climate, although under the parallel of Paris, obliged them to discontinue the culture of the vine.

In the whole extent of eastern Gallicia, they grow about 20,000 quintals of tobacco at Makrotin, there is a plantation of rhubarb, which contains more than 40,000 plants.

A great quantity of hemp and flax is cultivated, especially in the district of Przemis; but they only fabricate some coarse linens, which produce them but little. The mountains are peopled with weavers, tradesmen in the different branches of iron, and various others; their manufactures only want the finishang part to please the eye: for, in their

mens particularly, the intrinsic qua lity cannot be better. Yet they have, and do make some very fine, which at the same time is both very good and very reasonable. The Austrian government has given great encouragement to the woollen manufactories, which are already very numerous.

Eastern Gallicia, about twenty years ago contained more than a million and a half of horned cattle, and 300,000 horses. Red Russia may, probably be stated at about two thirds of these numbers; since that period the breed of horses has been considerably improved, and the Austrians draw from them sufficient to remount the greatest part of their cavalry.

There are no lakes, but many thousands of vast and handsome ponds, (if I may so call them,) the largest of which are in the district of Lemberg; some of them are a league in length and breadth, and which, from their fisheries, are worth 60,000 florins a year.

The iron mines, better worked under the Austrian government, are however of but little importance. Pokutia yields a sort of inferior marble. This country contains a great quantity of salt and sulphureous springs that of Lubin has been recently analyzed by a chemist. The water holds in solution sulphur, bitumen, gypsum, and iron; it leaves a crust of sulphur on the borders of the spring, in which is found alum, iron, and sal-ammoniac. The salt springs have given name to the city of Halicz, which became that of a kingdom.

Such are the principal traits of the natural geography of this country. Amongst the towns we will only remark the following. Lemberg, in Polish Swow, and Latin Leopolis, formerly the capital of Red Russia or Lodomiria, at present that of all eastern Gallicia. It is a large and handsome city, with wide straight streets,well paved, and kept clean; things very rare in this country. The buildings are in a noble style, which astonishes the traveller accustomed to see the wretched Polish architecture. I can easily venture to attribute this phenomenon to the proximity of Constantinople, from whence some Greeks may have taken refuge at Leopol, and perhaps to the influence and example of the Jesuits, whose taste and talents no person will deny. There were formerly seventy-two churches, each richer and more magnificent than the other: under

the

the reign of Joseph II. the number was diminished to twenty, which was sufficient for a population lately estimated at 38,378 souls, amongst which are 13,232 Jews. Another third of the population consists of Greeks and Armenians; all these sects have their different temples and churches, and, as in all Gallicia, the free exercise of their religious worship. Lemberg carries on an extensive and advantageous trade with Russia, Turkey, and the other neighbouring countries. The city is surrounded by a rampart, which is now changed into streets and promenades. The suburbs are extensive and handsome; the environs afford a number of delightful

views and situations.

Brody, the second city in eastern Gallicia, is inhabited by 5,000 Christians and 15,000 Jews. It has a considerable trade; the castle is well fortified: the other towns are but inconsiderable. It is computed there are 5,400 souls at Przemysl or Premislaw, a town situated on the Sann, which there begins to be navigable: we are not acquainted with the population of Jaroslaw, a flourishing place, situated on a gentle pleasing ascent from the Sann. The hand. some church of Panna Maria, that is the holy Virgin, is much admired; as well as the delightful situation of the ancient college of the Jesuits. The trade in wax

is considerable, and a great deal of lin

en is fabricated there also. The neighbouring forests abound with bees. Sambor, a town of about 3,000 souls, has also its manufactories and bleachgrounds. Belz has a manufactory of potash. Halicz, the ancient capital of Gallicia, does not reckon more than 4,000 inhabitants: we have already noticed the salt springs near that city.

In the country between the Pruth and the mountains called Pokutia, is the flourishing town of Sniatyn, with a population of from 6 to 7,000 souls, which is much frequented on account of the great fairs which are held there: quantities of cattle, horses, wax, and honey, are annually sold there, which chiefly come from Moldavia. Kutty contains 5,300 inhabitants, who make considerable quantities of salt, as well as at Colompa.

More than two thirds of the peasantry of Red Russia or of eastern Gallicia, are of Russian origin; their language is very different from that of the Poles, and they have also a different ritual for their worship. Although the government of

Austria has no doubt greatly improved and ameliorated their condition, yet they are still but few degrees removed from savages; their pointed sheep-skin caps, their buskins made up of a bundle of rags tied round with thongs of raw hides; in fact, their whole appearance indicates poverty and filth: their food chiefly consists of milk, old cheese, sour-krout, and potatoes.

The different sovereigns who have ruled over this country have endeavoured to entice colonists from all nations. The Russian princes invited and encouraged the Armenians: their morals, and the unanimity which prevails amongst them, are entitled to much praise. Under the Polish government, the Jews formed a second part having made themselves masters of all the trade, and almost all the capital, they exercised an almost sovereign influence, and even held the nobility as it were in their power. In later years, Gallicia has received whole colonies at once from Germany, it being the policy of Austria to give every encouragement to these new settlers.

In my next I shall give you a description of Polish Prussia, and the duchy of Courland. W. H.

For the Monthly Magazine. On the PRACTICABILITY of DISCHARGING the NATIONAL DEBT.

which at the present crisis involves

HAT the national debt is a subject

considerations of the greatest national importance, few persons, I am persuaded, will be disposed to deny. It would be no difficult matter to shew, that so long as it exists to the same extent, and in nearly similar circumstances, it will be impossible, in the present situation of Europe, for this country to make peace with France without being liable to be made in some sort tributary to her. It must necessarily be too on account of the revolutionary apprehensions of the stockholder, an almost insurmountable barrier to every species of reform, and an obstacle to every amelioration both of the moral and political condition of the great bulk of the people.

Struck with the various mischiefs it is calculated to occasion, and persuaded that it is impossible to discharge it fairly, Mr. Cobbett, and some others, have proposed that it should be can celled at once. This, no doubt, is a harsh measure, and can only be justified on the supposition that the ruin of the country is inevitable without having re

course

course to it.

In my opinion, however, this is far from being the case. I am persuaded that the debt may be discharged fairly; and that it would be much more advantageous to the country to do so, than to get rid of it by means of the sponge. It is my present object to shew the practicability of paying it; and the importance of the subject must be my apology to you and your readers, for requesting your attention and opinion on the subject.

About a year ago, a pamphlet of mine was published by Mawman, entitled, "Observations on the National Debt, with a Plan for. Discharging it, &c." That which I then considered as the novel and distinguishing feature of my plan, was a proposal that the funds should contribute towards their own discharge, exactly in the proportion which they were found to bear to all the existing property in the country.

Thus, taking the national debt at four hundred millions, (which I shewed would at that time be about its amount, reck oning the interest of money at 5 per cent. and supposing the S per cents. paid off at 60, and all the other stock after the same ratio) and taking the existing property on the country at 1600 millions, (which from the returns of the income-tax, would appear to be about the mark) in this case, the proprietors of stock would have to pay from their property in the funds 80 millions, (4th of the whole national debt) or deduct so much from their claims on the public, and the other proprietors would have to pay the remaining 4ths, or 320 millions, beingth of their whole property. Some of your readers will be alarmed perhaps at the magnitude of this sum, but they are to recollect, that if it would require 4th of their property to pay the principal of the national debt, it takes more than th of their income, more than 4th of the produce of their property, to pay their share of its interest. And that by paying off the national debt, every one would save his share of the expense of collecting its interest, which, reckoning their direct wages, and the loss to the nation of the labour of the collectors, is very considerable. In my proposal for taxing the funds towards discharging themselves, I was not at that time aware that I had been anticipated by the bishop of Llandaff, who recommended the same measure in an "Address to the People of England," published in 1798. His lordship, however, has not adduced

any arguments to prove the equity of his proposal, and the Edinburgh reviewers, in their third volume, in reviewing a speech of his, intended to have been de livered in parliament, and published in 1805, in which his lordship again recommends the same measure, are by no means disposed to admit its justice and propriety. They observe, "the direct taxation of the national creditor, in proportion to his debt, by refusing him payment of a certain part of it, is extremely like a palpable breach of faith." I am persuaded, however, that the arguments I have brought forward in my pamphlet above-mentioned, in support of this mea, sure, will be found abandantly suficient to establish its equity.*

In estimating however the amount of the national property from the amount of the income-tax, I did not then take into consideration that there is a great deal of property which does not contribute to that tax; but since every spe cies of property ought to contribute in proportion to its value towards discharg ing a national debt, an estimate for that purpose which does not take into ac count all property of whatever descrip tion, must be defective and erroneous. Property of the kind just mentioned, is such as household furniture, books, pictures, &c. &c. and, in short, every thing which does not yield a direct income.

I cannot here refrain from noticing the disingenuousness of the Monthly Review. In their remarks upon my pamphlet, they observe, as near as I can recollect, to the following effect: "The writer has told us what we all knew, that if the national debt

be paid off, every person ought to contribute if we look at their review of the bishop's according to his property towards it." Now pamphlet, in 1798, we shall find that they, like most, or I believe all those who replied to it, did not then know that the stockholder ought to contribute from his funded property towards paying the debt. For, in commenting upon the bishop's proposal that they should contribute, the reviewers observe': "We will not say how far he is right in recommending the taxing of the funds." Now I think it is fair to conclude, from the manthen of opinion that the bishop was not right ner in which this is said, that they were clear that they then knew little or nothing in his recommendation; at any rate it is very Bood of new light has burst in upon them, about the matter, but now it seems such a that they can see clearly that the bishop was right, and they affect to believe that every body else must have done so too, without any information of mine on the subject,

The

The property of such persons also as are exempt on account of the smallness of their income from paying the propertytax, is of the same description. This property, though apparently trifling in the detail, will be found considerable in its aggregate amount. Perhaps no person whose property amounts to ten pounds, or even less than that sum, ought to be exempted from the operation of this measure. * I have already observed, that I estimated the existing national property at 1600 millions, and the amount of the national debt at 400 millions; but suppose we add 80 millions for the amount of property not represented by the income-tax, and that we reckon twenty millions for what has been added since the time I wrote to the national debt; we shall then have 2100 millions of real and nominal pro perty, (by nominal property I mean that in the funds) with which to pay a debt of 420 millions. It follows therefore, that every one would be called upon to give up 4th of his property in order to discharge the national debt. The stock bolders would as such, have to deduct from their claims on the public 84 mil lions, and the public would have to pay to the stockholders the remaining 336 millions. It may not be amiss to remark here, that any error which may be made in estimating the relative proportion which the national debt and national property bear to each other, will not affect the general question which regards the policy of discharging such a debt. In general, however, the greater the proportion which a national debt bears to the existing national property, the greater will be the benefits which will accrue to nations and individuals from discharging such debts. If it be admitted also that national creditors ought to contribute in proportion to the amount of their claims to discharge debts due to themselves, it will follow that a nation cannot contract a debt (with its own people at least) greater than it will possess sufficient property to discharge at

*This no doubt is theoretically right, but when we consider the state of the popular representation, the state of property, the manner in which the national debt has been contracted, and upon whom and for what purpose it has been chiefly expended,' we shall be disposed to think perhaps that an arrangement somewhat different from this, might be equitably adopte in its practical payment. On this subject I may say more hereafter,

any time. Should a national debt, far instance, be twenty times as much as all the property in a country is worth, a nation, even in such a situation, would still be able to pay its debt. The stockholders would, in this case, have to pay, or rather to give up, twenty parts in twenty-one of the debt, and the public would have to pay the remaining twentyfirst part only,

Having thus glanced at the mode of discharging national debts theoretically, I shall proceed to consider the business in a practical point of view. And the best way of doing this perhaps, will be to state the objections which have been made against the measure on account either of the supposed impracticability of executing it, or on account of the mis. chiefs it appears calculated to occasion.

gen.

The Critical Review, in their account of my pamphlet, observe: "The immediate discharge of the national debt in this, or any other way, would cause a great quantity of superfluous capital, which the necessities of trade, of commerce, and of agriculture, could not readily absorb. Numerous annuitants on the funds, who now live on their in terest, would then be obliged to live on their capital. The quantity of circulating medium would be encreased beyond all proportion to the exigencies of exchange, &c. &c." Now I would ask these tlemen, how it would be possible to create, and bring suddenly into circulation, a great additional quantity of currency by the discharge of the national debt, or indeed by any other financial measure? I can conceive only two ways by which the circulating medium of a country can be suddenly augmented. First, by the discovery of new mines of the precious metals; or secondly, by the introduction of an extra quantity of paper-money: since the former of these does not appear probable, we will examine a little the practicability of the latter. It will be readily allowed, that no person can all at once issue an extraordinary quantity of paper-money who has not the ostensible means of taking it up with negotiable value. Let us suppose, for instance, that a proprietor of land, to the value of one

*The muthly reviewers have denied the practicability of discharging the debt, in the same manner as they insinuated that it was unjust to tax the funds for the purpose. Now should I be able to shew its practicability, I suppose they will assert again, that I have said nothing but what they and every one knew before,

million,

million, were to draw bills to the amount of two hundred thousand pounds, in order to pay his share of the national debt, who would be found able or willing to discount them, especially if the Bank of England were prohibited, as it ought to be, and as indeed it is from the nature of things, from increasing its discounts? No doubt the paper-money of this country is gradually increased; and this is an evil which ought, and I believe might, be remedied by means which I may hereafter point out; but it appears utterly impossible that any considerable quantity of circulating medium can be suddenly forced into circulation without producing a depreciation in its value greater even than the amount of the extra issue. Unless therefore there be already existing a quantity of circulating medium sufficient for the purpose, it would be altogether impracticable to discharge the national debt by its direct payment in currency: and even if there were, it would be next to impossible for the great proprietors of land to procure sufficient of it for their purpose. It is in this light that the Edinburgh reviewers, in their critique on the bishop's "intended speech," consider the matter, and with this opinion I think every reflecting person must coincide.

Taking it for granted then that the national debt cannot be discharged by a direct payment in specie, I shall be asked, how is it to be discharged? I answer, It may be done in two ways: either by the owners of lands and houses making an actual transfer of such part of them (say 4th) as would be equivalent to the proportion each would have to pay of the national debt, or (which would be much better, for reasons which I shall hint at bye and bye) by charging on their whole estates an annual sum equal to the interest at 5 per cent. of the capital each would have to pay. Suppose, for instance, a person was possessed of houses and land, which, when valued as proposed in my pamphlet, were found to be worth ten thousand pounds. Now th of this, or 2000l. would be the sum he would have to pay towards discharging the national debt, and the interest of it at 5 per cent. would be 1001.; with this sum therefore, such an estate should be charged annually to what might be called the debt-tax, instead of being levied upon at once for the capital, it would have been liable to contribute for its proportion to the national debt. This annual sum, or debt-tax, should be paid

in quarterly or half-yearly instalments to the Bank of England, and be by them paid in the usual way to the stock. holders. This example will be sufficient to explain my meaning with respect to the mode of transferring that part of the debt which would fall to the share of the land and houses.

Let us next inquire what would be the general effect of the adoption of such a plan. If we suppose the landed buildings to be equal in value to ths of all the existing property in the country, which perhaps is not an extravagant estimate, we shall, by an arrangement of this kind, get rid of nearly 269 millions, or

is of all which the public would have to pay to the stockholder without the transfer of a single shilling, without making the least change in the relative situation of any individual, and without the fabrication of a single pound note. There would remain therefore only about 66 millions to be settled by a transfer of specie, and this might be effected without much difficulty in the course of five years, by twenty quarterly payments of 34 millions each, charging to each person the regular interest which fell to his share, till the whole of his debt was paid off.

In order to render the transfer of specie as small as possible, it should be provided that lands and houses under mortgage should be reckoned at their full value, and pay to the debt-tax in the same proportion as those not under mortgage. But the owners would be authorised to deduct from the annual interest due to the mortgagee a sum equal to the interest of that which he (the mortgagee) would have had to pay to the stockholder on account of such money, as his proportionate part for discharging the national debt. Money therefore on mortgage would not be directly liable to the debt-tax, but indi rectly through the medium of the real property on the security of which it was put to interest. By this means we should provide, that the whole rental of the land and houses would be charged to the debt-tax, which would not be the case if mortgaged property were exempted from it for the amount of the money for which it was under mortgage; if this exemption took place, it is evident that a greater transfer of specie (a thing which ought as much as possible to be avoided) would be required to complete the payment of the national debt. When money was paid in which had been lent on

mortgage,