energy of food stuffs, derived from the blood, into active energy, manifested as mechanical work. Of its great variety of component mechanisms the most important are the nervous and muscular tissues. Nearly all the rest of the body is occupied (1) in preparing the raw food and bringing it to be built up into these tissues, and (2) in receiving and preparing for ejection the waste matters. On the harmoniously balanced working of these two processes the health of the organism largely depends. To promote this well-ordered working and turn the net income of the body to the fullest and best account, so that it will not be spent in confused or excessive muscular movements, the neuromuscular mechanism should form proper habits of action. The development of such habits is accomplished through the practice of regulated neuro-muscular exercises. Such exercises, properly combined and adapted to the sex, age, health, and mental capacity of different individuals, are designated collectively by the term "physical training." Doctor Hartwell specifies the beneficial effects, either direct or indirect, of neuro-muscular exercise upon the different mechanisms of the body in turn-upon the structural parts of the muscles, in producing a normal degree of size and working power, brought about by improved nutrition; upon the neural parts, by developing advantageous habits in respect to the origination and transmission of stimuli. The effect upon the processes of digestion, assimilation, and excretion is important, though indirect, being produced by changes in the volume, distribution, and quality of the general blood stream. In fact, the nutrition and growth of all the tissues are promoted by muscular exercise. "The normal growth and development of the motor areas of the brain depend in large measure on the normal exercise of the muscles whose movements are represented by them." This development of the neural mechanisms is to be regarded as the most important of the special effects of "muscular" exercise.

Following Mercier, Doctor Hartwell classifies bodily movements into central (movements of the trunk), peripheral (of the fingers, mouth, eyes, etc.), and intermediate; and cites a corresponding classification of the nervous mechanisms which represent these movements (low, higher, and highest level centers), adopted by some writers. Lowlevel, fundamental nerve centers are developed early, being practically complete at birth, while high-level accessory centers are the latest formed and the most highly specialized, and are less stable. As the nervous system is the most important object of education, the principle is laid down that all education, whether mental or physical, should conform to the laws that determine its growth and development. Hence provision should be made first of all and continuously for the exercise and training of the fundamental and central neuro-muscular mechanisms, and care taken not to prematurely subject undeveloped accessory centers to strenuous discipline. The movements of the cen

tral groups of muscles have, moreover, great influence in determining the quality and volume of the blood stream. The most typical of central movements, that of breathing, is amenable to discipline; a teacher can prevent a pupil from forming the habit of stuttering by showing him how to acquire proper control over his breathing movements.

To illustrate the beneficial effects of a regulated course of physical training in developing the mental faculties, two examples are given. One case is that of an idiot boy 8 years old, who was subjected to a course of training according to the theories and under the direction of the late Dr. E. Seguin. At the beginning the boy had no command of his hand; could not put it or his fingers in any prescribed attitude. After two years' training his bodily movements had been brought under control and his intelligence awakened to the extent that he was able to enter a school for ordinary children and do fairly well at his lessons.

Another instance is that of an experimental class in physical culture at the Elmira (New York) State Reformatory, composed of dullards who were making almost no progress in school work. The object was to ascertain if physical culture, as comprised in frequent baths, massage, and daily calisthenics, would not stimulate mental power. Muscular development was not aimed at. The experiment continued five months, with such satisfactory results that the State thereupon added to the reformatory plant a suitable gymnasium and bath house.

Doctor Hartwell divides the period of bodily immaturity, covering the first twenty-four years of life, into three equal periods of eight years each. The conditions which characterize each of these periods are duly set forth by him, as well as the peculiar type of physical training called for in each case.

Considering physical training in its most general aspect, and including in the term martial and athletic sports as well as gymnastic exercises, the number of representative systems may be reduced to five: (1) the Grecian, (2) the mediæval or knightly, (3) the British, (4) the German, and (5) the Swedish. Each of these systems has certain broad distinguishing features, though in some respects they overlap each other. British sports probably stand next to Grecian in point of age; they have undergone but slight modification at the hands of educational reformers, and are mainly athletic, being almost devoid of pedagogical aims or methods. On the other hand, German training is singularly lacking in the athletical element. The Swedish training is of the strictly gymnastic type. German and Swedish gymnastics have been developed largely of set purpose, whereas British sports are a spontaneous expression of the national spirit.

The founding of the Dessau philanthropinum in 1774 marks the first step in the development of German gymnastics, though it was not until the early years of the next century that the system was more

fully elaborated by Jahn, the father of German "turning." German school gymnastics (Schulturnen) owe their distinctive peculiarities to Adolf Spiess, who worked out a system involving the simultaneous performance by a class or squad of prescribed exercises at the word of command. This form of physical training, more or less modified, gradually made its way into the course of school instruction in different parts of Germany; at present three hours a week are devoted to it in the Prussian higher schools for boys and two hours in the schools for girls and in the elementary schools. A general statement as to its methods, spirit, and intent is given on pages 741-742. It should be noted that this training in Germany is not regarded as a substitute for recess or free play, but forms an organic part of the course of instruction.

Peter Henry Ling is regarded as the originator of Swedish school gymnastics. Though this branch did not become highly organized or generally adopted in the school course until some years after his death, it has developed along lines marked out by him. He anticipated the class exercises of Spiess, laid great stress on positions as distinguished from movements, and was the first to devise free movements (i. e., without apparatus) as preparatory exercises. He also paid great attention to physiological considerations, and especially required movements to be made so as to promote free and deep breathing. "Progression" and the coordination of exercises with each other are distinguishing features of the Swedish system.

In emphasizing the point that in the Swedish and German systems all movements are performed at the word of command, Doctor Hartwell takes occasion to protest against the teaching of gymnastics through memorized and musical drills, a practice, he says, still somewhat common in England and the United States.

The rise of physical training in the United States has been marked by alternating periods of enthusiasm and neglect. The Round Hill School at Northampton, Mass., was the first to connect gymnastics with a purely literary training (in 1825), though previously its claims in some form had been advocated by a number of persons interested in education, including Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Rush, Noah Webster, and Thomas Jefferson. Other enthusiastic and short-lived experiments, chiefly on lines suggested by foreign experience, followed. The well-known names of Doctor Follen and Doctor Lieber are prominent in this connection. Harvard started the first college gymnasium in 1826. Yet the matter soon lapsed into neglect. Previous to the civil war, apparently, no very considerable development took place. Mention should be made, however, of the transitory but widespread movement between 1829 and 1835 “to provide college and seminary students with facilities for gaining health, amusement, and money by means of agricultural and mechanical labor."

The period from 1860 to 1880 was marked by a renewal of interest in gymnastics, particularly in colleges and preparatory schools; also, by the beginning of the extraordinary development of athletic sports and games which is a distinguishing feature of school and college life at the present day. The gymnastic crusade preached by Dio Lewis, in Boston, in 1860, had a far-reaching influence. Amherst College in the same year established a department of physical education under Dr. Edward Hitchcock, who introduced a system of periodical physical measurements of students. In 1880 the Hemenway Gymnasium of Harvard University was opened, under Doctor Sargent, the inventor of the system of "developing gymnastics," which bears his name; since then millions of dollars have been spent upon new gymnasia modeled more or less closely upon the Hemenway, and using in the main the Sargent system, which is described more particularly on page 752. Swedish pedagogical gymnastics have been adopted by certain colleges for women, but by few for men. With all the interest displayed in building gymnasia and collecting appliances, however, too little attention has been paid to developing the science and art of physical training, and too much prominence allowed to athletic ideals, methods, and aims.

The subject of school gymnastics is taken up on page 754, where a brief account of the systems adopted and the progress made is given.

Manual, industrial, and technical education forms the subject of Chapter XIX (pp. 1019-1046), by Prof. Calvin M. Woodward, director of the manual training school and dean of the school of engineering and architecture of the Washington University, St. Louis.

By "manual training" is understood "the systematic study of the theory and use of common tools, the nature of common materials, elementary and typical processes of construction, and the execution and reading of working drawings." The mere performance of hand work upon materials in the school does not constitute manual training. System and continuity are essential. The manipulations of the kindergarten, busy work in the primary grades, the science laboratory, and the commercial workshop are beyond the pale of manual training. The real aim of manual training is not to construct certain objects, which are only the incidental means, but to develop mastery and power as the result of the effort made. In cooperation with mental training it strengthens and disciplines all the faculties; the "whole boy" is put to school.

Manual training, using the term in its pedagogical sense, is of recent origin. Certain forms of it were employed in Russia in 1868. An exhibit made by the Imperial School of Moscow at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia in 1876 seems to have been chiefly instrumental in drawing attention to it in this country. The St. Louis Manual Training High School, opened in 1880, was the first of its kind

and attracted much attention here and abroad. Others followed in Baltimore (1883), Chicago (1884), Toledo (1884), Philadelphia (1885), and elsewhere. This progress was not made without some opposition. Professor Woodward cites some of the predictions that were made as to the evil effect upon the school and the pupils of this new form of training; all of which, he says, have apparently turned out to be false. Hostile criticism has practically ceased, and there are now manual training high schools to be found in nearly every large city, while hundreds of secondary schools have introduced manual training in some form as an optional study. The European plan of making it a pure "extra," to be taken after hours, has found little favor in the United States.

After manual training had become recognized as a valuable feature in high school work attention was directed to introducing it into the grammar schools in an elementary form. Many experiments have been tried, the results of which tend to show that for children in the stage of development reached in the grammar school period the exercises should be simple, involving few elements, and capable of analysis into steps which the child can appreciate. This very important advice, if carefully considered, would modify and improve most of the manual work in the grammar schools. Especially the pupil should learn when and how to use each particular tool.

The class method of instruction should be used. The teacher makes in the first place to the pupils a statement of principles and theories, and gives a practical illustration; one-fourth of the laboratory period is sufficient for this. The pupils then repair to their separate places and reduce to practice what is to them as yet theory. The teacher should never begin work for the pupils to finish, nor finish what they have begun. The doing, not the finished product, is the main thing. Herein lies one of the chief points of distinction between the manual training laboratory and the commercial workshop.

More or less industrial work has been introduced into schools of different grades under the guise of manual training. Such occupations have much of educational value, but are liable to become ends in themselves rather than the means of development and growth. Industrial training has no well-defined limits; it ranges over all the ground between manual training proper on the one hand, and purely trade instruction by apprenticeship in commercial shops on the other. While it should be kept in mind that manual labor is not manual training, still the employment of strictly pedagogical methods in teaching a trade or industry is of value both from a practical as well as from an educational standpoint. Professor Woodward cites from Supt. Thomas M. Balliet, of Springfield, Mass., an interesting experiment in the direction of trade teaching along pedagogical lines and in connection with the public schools.

Coeducation.-Chapter XX (pp. 1047-1078) treats of coeducation