Each class contains a certain percentage of the whole body of teachers; hence the significance of the expression le pourcentage," constantly occurring in discussions of the service. By the law of July 15, 1889, the percentages were fixed as follows: "Stagiaires, 15 per cent; fifth class, 25 per cent; fourth class, 25 per cent; third class, 20 per cent; second class, 10 per cent; first class, 5 per cent."

The rigid adherence to these proportions had produced such a crowded state in the upper classes that for several years there had seemed no hope of promotion for teachers in the lower classes. This discouraging prospect combined with the low salaries, which are inferior to those in other branches of the civil service, has proved a serious evil, destroying the prestige of the teaching service and deterring young men and women from entering it. The matter has recently been made the subject of special investigation and measures are now pending which it is hoped will greatly ameliorate the financial and social condition of the primary teachers. Meanwhile slight relief has been furnished by a clause in a financial law of 1900 changing the proportion of teachers allowed to each class and appropriating a sum of money ($1,000,000) to provide for the increase of salaries as required by the readjustment and pensions for the retirement of a number of aged or infirm teachers.

Under the new adjustment the proportion of teachers in four of the six classes is changed as follows: Stagiaires (probationers) reduced from 15 to 10 per cent of total; fifth class from 25 to 20 per cent; third class raised from 20 to 25 per cent; second class raised from 10 to 15 per cent.

TABLE IX.—Total current expenditures for public primary schools.

a For report of this investigation see Report of Commissioner for 1902, vol. 1, pp. 708-719. bAs this report goes to press it is announced that the percentage requirement has been annulled.

a From Statistique de l'enseignement secondaire des garçons, 1887, pp. lvi, lxxviii, xcviii.

Rapports faits au nom de la commission du budget, etc.-Service de l'instruction publique, par M. Bouge, 1897, pp. 124, 125; also 1898, pp. 32, 33.

The same, by M. Perreau, 1901, pp. 69, 70.

d The same, by M. Maurice-Faure, 1902, pp. 443, 445.

TABLE XII.-Distribution of university students in the different faculties.

TABLE XIIa.-Distribution of students in State universities.

a Statistique de l'enseignement, 1878-1888, pp. 133-418. bStatistique de l'enseignement, 1900, pp. 10-180.

c Rapport portant fixation du Budget Général, Ministère de l'Instruction Publique, 1901 (Perreau), pp. 15, 16. dThe same (by Maurice-Faure) for 1902.

The following special schools of university rank are also under the Minister of Public Instruction:

Collége de France (appropriation, 1900, $104,600), Museum of Natural History (appropriation, $193,500), Practical School of High Studies [École Pratique des Hautes Études (State appropriation, $64,200; city, $7,200)], Superior Normal School (110 students; appropriation, $103, 120), reunited to the University of Paris by a ministerial decree to take effect November 1, 1904; School of Charts [École Nationale des Chartes (students, 69; appropriation, $14,990)], School of Oriental Languages (students, 415; appropriation, $33,600), French School of Archæology at Rome (appropriation, $14,600), French School at Athens (appropriation, $21,600), École Nationale des Beaux Arts (students, 2,000; appropriation, $84,052). The remaining special schools, such as the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers, École Nationale Supérieure de Mines, etc., are under the charge of other ministers (see Table XIII).

TABLE XIII.-Higher technical schools under other ministries than that of public instruction (ministry of agriculture, of commerce, of war, etc.).

The independent or private school of political sciences (École Libre des Sciences Politiques), Paris, registered 600 students in 1901.

ED 1903-38

THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

General administration.—The presentation of the scholastic work of the schools classed as primary is necessarily confined to the official programmes, which, though subject to modification by local school inspectors, are as a rule closely followed. In order to appreciate the authoritative nature of these regulations it is important to bear in mind the chief features of the system to which they pertain. Briefly outlined, these features are centralized control, comprehensive scope, thorough organization and provision for expert direction.

The chief of the system is the minister of public instruction, but the interests of each of the three scholastic divisions, under his charge, primary, secondary and superior, are confided to a director whose authority in his division is scarcely less than that of the minister. In the superior council of public instruction, in which all measures affecting the system are deliberated, the interests of each of the three divisions of the systems are separately considered; their financial affairs are also separately administered. The distinction is preserved in the local administration of the system, which is organized in seventeen divisions called academies. Each academy comprises a university, a group of secondary schools (lycées and communal colleges), and its quota of primary schools.

The authority of the academic chief or rector extends to all grades of education, and he is the intermediary through whom reports, recommendations, etc., are presented to the minister. He is assisted by a council of university professors whose deliberations relate to the affairs of secondary and higher education. The general direction of primary schools in each academy is intrusted to academic inspectors subordinate to the rector. One such inspector is appointed for every department (i. e. districts for civil administration adopted as units for primary school administration). Each department includes two normal schools (one for men the other for women) and at least one public primary school in every commune. Communes of above 500 inhabitants must have a separate school for girls. The academic inspector is the educational chief of the department and has under his general direction a corps of primary inspectors, numbering 1 to about 150 schools, who keep close watch over the schools in their respective districts. The prefect, or civil chief of the department, also has extended authority in respect to primary schools. He presides over the educational council of the department, and also has the appointment of full teachers, but his choice must be limited to a list of candidates approved by the academic inspector. Although every commune must establish at least one public primary school (unless specially authorized to combine with another commune in support of a school), providing the site and building and bearing a proportion of the expense for its maintenance, communal authorities have practically no authority in school matters. The mayor of the commune has the right to visit the school at all times, and there are communal committees who are expected to promote the attendance of pupils and to report violations of the compulsory laws, but they have so far proved of little account.

Finally, the minister of public instruction is kept personally informed of the status of primary schools by a corps of general inspectors who make two annual tours of their respective districts and report directly to the minister the results of their observations.

With the exception of the departmental prefect (appointed for political reasons by the President of the Republic) the educational officials are all chosen upon professional grounds. The rector of an academy (an appointee of the President) must have the doctor's degree, and must have given proof of administrative ability. The academic inspectors are chosen by the minister generally from the professors of secondary education or from the body of primary inspectors; in any case, they must have had experience in teaching or in school administration.

The primary inspectors are selected by competitive examination generally from the élite of the teachers. The examination is the same as for the directors of normal schools, and includes, besides general branches, pedagogy, school law, and school management.

It should be noted also that the councils-the superior council, the academic, and the departmental councils-are constituted with special reference to securing professional advice on scholastic questions.

The superior council of public instruction, which advises with the minister of public instruction, consists of 60 members, one-fourth appointed by the President of the Republic and the remainder elected by their colleagues (professors and teachers), the term of service being four years.

The minister is also assisted by an advisory committee (comité consultatif), formed by his own appointment from the company of general inspectors, honorary or acting, and from the highest officials of the system of public instruction.

The academic council, which advises with the rector of the academy, is composed of university professors, of whom four are his own nominees and the remainder elected by their colleagues.

The educational council of a department consists of 14 members, of whom 4 belong to the civil council of the department, 2 are primary inspectors, and the remainder teachers elected by their colleagues.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

The department of primary instruction, as organized by the law of October 30, 1886, comprises infant schools and classes, elementary primary schools, higher primary schools, schools of manual apprenticeship (authorized by law of December 11, 1880, and eventually transformed into manual-training schools, "écoles nationales professionnelles)."a

The departmental normal schools are also included in the category of primary schools. The line of separation between these different classes of schools and the division among them of the prescribed subjects of primary instruction are determined by special regulations elaborated in the superior council of public instruction. These schools are all free and secular, and the teachers in every case must be appointed from the laity. The law with respect to compulsory attendance applies only to the elementary primary schools.

1. Infant schools (écoles maternelles) and infant classes.—In the infant schools, children of both sexes from 2 to 6 years of age receive together physical, moral, and intellectual training adapted to their tender years. These schools are wholly in the charge of women; the teaching force includes a directress, and an assistant, if the number of children is more than 50. The teachers are always aided by a sewing woman.

In every commune where a public maternal school exists committees of women are formed to keep watch over its sanitary and hygienic conditions, the general appearance of the establishment, and the disposition of funds or gifts, legacies, etc., received for the benefit of the children. The mayor of the commune presides over these committees.

Communes are not obliged by law to found and maintain maternal schools, and it is only in communes having above 2,000 inhabitants, of which at least 1,200 are concentrated in one locality, that these schools are included in the number of public primary schools entitled to support by the commune and to State subventions. These schools have proved to be better adapted to cities than to rural districts. A little more than 10 per cent of the communes report at least one infant school.

a The classification of the schools of manual apprenticeship and of the national technical schools was modified by a decree of March 17, 1888, and still further by the financial law of January 26, 1902. The schools are at present under the dual control of the minister of commerce and the minister of public instruction.