Throughout this long period has occurred a most significant development of that important element of the university-the course of study. That development has proved to be largest in the nineteenth century. From the foundation of the first American college up to the beginning of that century the development had been indeed slight, as slight as it had been from the fall of the scholastic philosophy down to the foundation of the first American college. The two ancient languages, together with, in certain cases, Hebrew and certain philosophical and rhetorical studies, represented the early curriculum. But from the first decade of the last century the enlargement and the enrichment of the higher curriculum has been great and constant. The law of the enlargement and enrichment has been determined by the enlargement and enrichment of the field of knowledge itself. As this field has become greater and finer, so also has the course of study. As science has developed through successive discoveries it has become part of the academic discipline. As modern languages have become necessary for the practical affairs or for the scholarship of man, they have been included in the course of study. The general development of the science of economics and of sociology has simply preceded the introduction of these topics into the college. In his sketch of Harvard College Sixty Years Ago Rev. Dr. A. P. Peabody says:

The range of study was much less extensive than now. Natural history did not then even profess to be a science, and received very little attention. Chemistry, under auspices which one does not like to recall, occupied and utterly wasted a small portion of the senior year. French and Spanish were voluntary studies, or rather recreations, for the recitation rooms of the kind-hearted septuagenarian who had these recitations in charge was frequented more for amusement than for anything that was taught or learned. Italian and German were studied in good earnest by a very few volunteers.

Most general has been the enlargement of the curriculum of the American university. The fundamental science of mathematics has progressed by slow degrees until recent years. The first classes of Harvard were admitted without a knowledge of the subject, and it was not taken up in college earlier than the senior year. The course consisted of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Such continued to be the essence of instruction throughout the eighteenth century. In 1726 the Hollis professorship of mathematics was established. Following the Revolutionary war what is known as English mathematics was introduced, and in the second quarter of the nineteenth century the French. In the last fifty years the development of mathematical studies has been rapid. The development of the natural and physical sciences has also, although beginning later, been made by slow degrees. The first academic chair of chemistry was founded at Princeton in 1795. In 1802 a chair was established at Columbia, the next year at Vale, and at South Carolina College and Dickinson in 1811. The growth of a department quite unlike mathematics and chemistry, the department of history, has likewise been slow. Although classical history has long been studied, the oldest college had been in existence more than two hundred years before a formal professorship of history was endowed. Harvard established the McLean professorship of ancient and modern history in 1839, and appointed to it Jared Sparks. Economics is likewise a study confined to the last century. Between 1820 and 1835 the study was introduced into Harvard, Yale, Dartmouth, Columbia, Princeton, and Williams. The modern languages, too, represent a later addition to the curriculum. French preceded the German language many years. Instruction in French was offered at Harvard in 1780, but it was not till 1815 that the Smith professorship of French and Spanish was founded. In the case of each of these and of other subjects the development of the facilities for giving and for receiving instruction has been swift and rich in the last half of the nineteenth century.

At the present time the recognition of the value of all studies as disciplines has

ED 1903-20

become general and hearty. Although there is a great difference between knowledge as knowledge and the same knowledge used as a subject for the training of youth, yet it has become evident that knowledge of any department of being may be so formed and formulated as to become a worthy academic discipline. The American university therefore usually includes in its curriculum all knowledges. Out of the vast enlargement of the field of knowledge has grown what has come to be known as the elective system of study. This system represents simply a method by which the student is allowed to select such studies as he desires. In the introduction and growth of this system of elective courses Harvard, under the leadership of its great president, has exercised a dominant influence. This system, introduced by the gradual methods of enlargement, has resulted in making nothing less than a revolution in the content of the higher education. Adopted by most colleges in the teeth of strong (and in certain cases of violent) opposition, yet it has steadily won its way. Having good elements and bad, the latter have been gradually eliminated. The advanced age at which men enter college and the higher courses pursued in the academies and high schools have served to eliminate many reasons against its adoption. The freedom of choice allowed the student has been hemmed in by varions sets of checks and balances. The distinct relation which the system bears to professional preparation has been worthily emphasized. But whatever may be said for or against its worth, it has now become evident that its introduction was simply inevitable. The enlargement of the field of knowledge, the privilege of the college of cultivating the whole domain of scholarship, and the duty of the college of training men and women for many and diverse forms of public service have rendered its adoption imperative.

In the last three score years and ten of this period the higher education of women has come to occupy a most important place. The higher education of women grew, in part, out of the enlargement of the opportunities for the secondary education of women, and, also in part, out of the enlargement of opportunities for public service. As girls were admitted to the high schools, the wish became urgent that their education should not cease with these schools. All the reasons which could be urged for the education of boys and of men were also to be urged for the education of their sisters. The foundation of Oberlin College in 1833, of Antioch, by Horace Mann, in 1853, and of such State universities as the University of Iowa in 1855, of Kansas in 1866, of Minnesota in 1868, and of Nebraska in 1871 represent successive stages in the development. Although the University of Indiana was opened in 1820, it did not admit women until 1868, and although the University of Michigan dates its existence as far back as the establishment of the State in 1837, it was not until the year 1870 that its doors were opened to women. The universities of Illinois, of California, of Wisconsin, and of Ohio were also opened to women in the same decade. Missouri offered its advantages to women in 1870, and Cornell in 1872. These colleges, and in fact all the State universities with the exception of Virginia, Georgia, and Louisiana, are coeducational. Of the five hundred colleges in the country, about 70 per cent admit women as well as men.

Separate colleges for women have also been founded, of which the most famous are Vassar, founded in 1865; Wellesley, founded in 1875; Smith, founded also in 1875, and Bryn Mawr, founded in 1885.

In addition to the coeducational and the separate method of the education of women has also grown up a method which has been denominated the coordinate system. It represents the affiliation of a college for women with a college for men. The most famous of these colleges are Radcliffe College, affiliated with Harvard; Barnard College, affiliated with Columbia; the Women's College, affiliated with Brown: the College for Women, affiliated with Western Reserve University; and the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, affiliated with Tulane

University. The affiliation in the case of these colleges differs in the different institutions. In certain colleges, as at Radcliffe, the entire teaching is given by the staff of the older institution; in others, as in Western Reserve University, a faculty quite separate is provided. This method is based upon the method of Cambridge and of Oxford, as witnessed in Newnham, Girton, Somerville, and other colleges.

These three types of method in the higher education of women are found in all parts of the United States, although the coeducational form is the more common in the West. In New England are found colleges for women alone, for both women and men, and for women and men under the coordinate system. In the Middle West coeducation begins to be more common, and west of the Mississippi it is the prevailing method. Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. These advantages and disadvantages spring largely from the fitness or unfitness of a particular method to the needs of the individual student.

The enlarging place which the American university holds in the interest of the American people is indicated in the rapid increase in its endowment and in the facilities of its equipment. The American university has been poor in the poverty of the American people; the American university is now becoming rich in its riches. In the year 1830 the first written statement of the finances of Yale College was made. At that time the entire productive fund, excluding land, amounted to between $30,000 and $31,000. The total income from funds that year was less than $2,700. The following year the receipts from all sources, including tuition, were a little less than $20,000, and the expenses a little more. In 1832 the receipts increased to a few cents more than $20,000, and the expenses had increased to a few dollars more than $23,000. In this year the income from funds was slightly less than $2,600. At the present time the endowment of Yale College exceeds $5,000,000. The whole amount of money received by Harvard during the seventeenth century was slightly in excess of £6,000, and during the eighteenth century aggregated £27,000. In the year 1846 the whole amount of the productive funds of the college was $650,000, and the income derived from all sources was slightly in excess of $45,000. At the present time the productive funds exceed $13,000,000, and are rapidly increasing. In the United States sixteen universities have endowments of between one million dollars and two; four between two millions and four; three between four millions and eight, and three have an endowment above ten millions. Although Harvard and Yale make a somewhat unique appeal to the generosity of benefactors, yet it is to be said every worthy college has in the last half century received a vast addition to its funds. In recent years about $10,000,000 have been annually given to American universities. No cause makes a more wise or a stronger appeal to the hearts of the American people than the American university. All motives for large and lasting beneficence unite in the making of a gift. At the present time the amount of the productive funds held by American universities and colleges has a value of about $150,000,000. Great as this sum is, the auguries indicate that endowments are to become much larger in the forthcoming decades. The value of buildings and grounds and apparatus is also about $150,000,000.

Halfway between the intellectual and material growth of the American university stands its library. It is significant that the foundation of our two oldest and best known colleges is vitally associated with the donation of books, for John Harvard bequeathed not only a part of his small fortune to the college which renders his name illustrious, but also 320 volumes. It is further to be said that the magistrates and ministers of the Bay Colony, out of their own libraries, gave toward the foundation of the college books which are valued at £200. (The Harvard Book, Chap. I, p. 112, article by J. L. Sibley, librarian.) It is a tradition preserved by

President Clap that when the founders of Yale College came together to make a formal establishment they could find no act more fitting with which to represent their purpose than the giving of books for the library. It is also significant that some of the more conspicuous gifts for these two colleges throughout their earlier history were books. The name of Thomas Hollis is one that lives in the Cambridge college in several relations, but among the objects of his benevolence was the library. Beginning with 1720, the date of his earliest benefaction to the library, he sent books and made appeals in behalf of the library to authors, publishers, and corporate bodies. The most valuable gift that the library of Yale ever received up to the first quarter of the present century was a gift of books from Bishop Berkeley. It consisted of about 1,000 volumes, and is judged to have cost about £400. (Yale College, Vol. I, p. 185, article by Addison Van Name, librarian.) That a gift of books was to a degree a constituent factor in the foundation of these two colleges, and not a laying of bricks, is prophetic of the place which the library occupies in an American college two centuries after. In the year 1841 William Gray gave to Harvard College, for the benefit of its library, the sum of $25,000. It was the largest gift of the kind which the college had received up to that time. From the time of the making of these first donations of books to Harvard and to Yale the growth of the college library has been constant and great. The growth of the Harvard library in particular has been most significant. The number of books under the control of this university exceeds 600,000. But it must be confessed that the libraries of most colleges are inadequately furnished and inefficiently administered. As one looks over the statistics of American universities he reads such figures as, for one college, 5,000 volumes; for another, 1,000, for another, 25,000, and for another, 50,000 volumes. About one-half of all the books in college libraries are found in institutions of the north Atlantic, and about 35 per cent in institutions of the north central division of States. In an address given at the convocation of the University of Chicago, at the beginning of the year of 1895, Seth Low said that the growth of the library has three stages: The first is found in the collection of books; the second, in the making books accessible; and, third, in the causing books to be the creators of other books. These three stages in particular belong to the library of the university. Above every other form of library the library of the university represents a continued thread of knowledge, uniting the past, the present, and the future.

The architecture of the American university represents all forms—and, it must be added, no form-of design and of construction. Although the first colleges were in point of course of study based upon the English model, yet their buildings adopted a new type. What is known as colonial architecture seems to have been quite as natural to the colonists for their academic and administration buildings as was the round arch to the Roman or the architrave to the Greek builder. As the Oxford and Cambridge colleges had close relation to cloister foundations, and as the new colleges of America followed out the religious purpose, it might be supposed that the cloister would represent the American type. But usually the buildings of the early American colleges were placed in a row and not in a quadrangle. The first college buildings were adaptations and enlargements of the forms of buildings used for dwelling houses and for warehouses. The earlier buildings were built not about a square, but in a row, as at Yale, Williams, Amherst, Bowdoin, and Hudson, Ohio. The three earlier buildings of Dartmouth were placed in a line, although the fourth building interrupted this arrangement. This simple type and method prevailed on the whole into the second quarter of the nineteenth century. At this time a new influence appeared. This influence was the Greek or the classical form. Its most conspicuous illustration is found in the creation of Jefferson in the University of Virginia and in the main building of Girard College, at Philadelphia. The Philadelphia structure, erected between

1833 and 1847, conforms in many respects to the Parthenon, although the columns are Corinthian and not Doric.

Following the dominance of the Greek type, the Gothic emerged. This influence arose from the interest of the people in the Middle Ages. Yale College in the last fifty years represents more significantly the presence of Gothic architecture than any other. Its first building of this form was the library, built in 1843-1846. From that time to the present some dozen buildings have been built in the Gothic style.

The finest illustration of Romanesque which America offers is seen in the buildings of the Leland Stanford Junior University. These buildings might probably be called a Romanesque-Oxford. The form is quadrangular, and the type is of the monastic cloister.

Throughout the last hundred years no one type or form of architecture has commonly prevailed. Gothic, Romanesque, colonial, and Greek are intermingled on the same college campus. For the college chapel the Gothic type has, on the whole, proved to be more popular. For the college library many forms have been used. For the college lecture or recitation room it must be confessed that a mixed design has proved more acceptable. For the laboratories, as of chemistry, physics, biology, and geology, are also found many types, from the colonial to the Romanesque and Gothic. The type of architecture fitted for a scientific laboratory still awaits formulation.

The reason for the vastness of diversity and the incongruity of structures arises from several causes. One cause is found in the individuality of donors of buildings; one cause also lies in the lack of attention on the part of governing boards to the proper placing of buildings and in the lack of a reasonable knowledge of architectural design and construction. Boards of trust have, on the whole, been too indulgent to the individual preferences or prejudices of donors of buildings, and also too indulgent toward their own architectural ignorances and shortcomings.

In the development of the American university the life of the undergraduates has become highly organized. Whether students live together in dormitories-a method prevailing more in the institutions of the East than of the West-or in private lodgings, their life is subject to many and diverse relations. Outside of fraternities, of which distinct mention is to be presently made, clubs and societies of all sorts are formed. In such universities as Yale and Harvard no less than fifty undergraduate organizations are formed. They are formed for purposes most diverse and with constituencies large or small, compact or loose, homogeneous or heterogeneous. Clubs political, musical, literary, social, dramatic, debating, religious, æsthetic, and athletic of all kinds, from tennis and football to revolver, are the more common.

The athletic organization of undergraduate life has become the most significant of all forms. The beginnings of such organization appeared about sixty years ago. As early as 1840 football was played at Yale, but it was as then played largely a scrimmage between the sophomore class and the freshman. For the next thirty years the game was played with much irregularity, both in time and method. It was not till the year of 1873 that an intercollegiate league was formed. The members of the class of 1844 at Yale and of 1846 at Harvard formed the first boat. clubs in those colleges; and in 1852 Yale challenged Harvard to a race, which was rowed on Lake Winnepesaukee on August 3, in which the challenging college was defeated. Baseball was introduced at Yale in 1859, and at Harvard three years later. Harvard played her first intercollegiate game with Brown in 1863, and Yale her first intercollegiate game with Wesleyan in 1865, and the first Harvard-Yale game dates from July 25, 1868.

From these simple origins the three great college sports have so progressed