the quick motions of the eye caused by an exciting and bustling spectacle, or the excitement of the ear by quick music, induce activity and quickness of execution over every part of the frame. The entire muscular system of the body being linked together by nervous connections joining all the separate circles, there arises this tendency to unity and harmony of action and state, and it becomes possible to influence any portion by acting on almost any other portion. The consequences of this comprehensive linking of the activities of the frame are far-reaching and numerous.

Proceeding upon these four general laws of the nervous organisation, we can, in addition to the instincts already traced as flowing from them, undertake the discussion of a still more complicated class of instinctive operations.

There is no fact of animal existence more deeply rooted or more constant in its recurrence than what we denominate by the term pursuit, taken, in its widest acceptation, as meaning every instance of the exertion of the active faculties towards some object or end. The senses or the intelligence descry something in the distance desirable to be attained, and, by the activity of the frame, this something is gradually approached and finally possessed. Now, we wish to shew that this tendency belongs to the inherent and inborn peculiarities of the animal organisation, and that it is in a great measure derived from the sensibilities and the laws of nervous communication above described. Take the case of a creature that seeks its prey by scent. The odour of the victim, by the responsive stimulus, excites the respiratory muscles into increased activity; their intensified alternation induces, by the laws of nervous communication, the similar state of alternation on the locomotive organs, just as the activity of the locomotive apparatus always increases the energy of the respiration. There is thus furnished a direct stimulus to pursuit, through the diffusion of like states from one part of the system to another. In the same way it could be shewn that the tension of the muscles of the eye, when fixed on a distant object, imparts, through this same tendency to a common attitude or state, a stimulus to the erecting muscles of the body; and these being stretched to the full, readily bring on the counter movement of energetic flexion, and no more is needed to set agoing a motion towards the object in question. Were there no other organisation than the arrangements above assumed, we believe that pursuit, the taking of an aim, the following of a lead, would happen in all cases as a matter of course, it being understood that every animal takes a certain length of time and exercise to acquire the use of its most familiar organs. It is also to be kept in view that any impulse of the system may at any time be suppressed by the presence of a stronger.

The instinct of preserving a basis of firm support, and maintaining a steady balance, with the dread of falling, is a remarkable example of the class of inborn propensities. Its explanation does not appear to be difficult on the principles above laid down. In the first place, it is to be remarked that there is not a more horrible feeling of the muscular system than the sudden giving way of one of the fixed supports of the body. It happens not merely in the support of the feet but in the case of any muscle whatever that happens to be in a state of energetic tension. It is the state well known as sea-sickness, and also the state of giddiness from looking down precipices. Now an animal being made painfully conscious of the loss of its footing by

this sensation coming over it, is urged by an instantaneous reflex process to exert its muscles somehow to gain a new posture. But this is not all. The eye has a strong sympathy with the body in general on the point of firm support. It becomes accustomed to rest on the ground as it were, or it acquires a fixed habitual glance towards the earth; and this reposing glance becomes associated with the feeling of support, and a sudden sinking of the ground away from the eye has the very same sickening effect that the actual loss of the solid rest of the body has to the general frame.

The instinct of vocal utterance springs partly out of the mere possession of active organs of voice, and partly out of the law of the propagation of similar states over the system. The respiratory organs, as has been already remarked, are in full connection with the locomotive and other active members; and the voice requires that their action should accompany the action of the muscles of the larynx, or those that tighten up and control the vocal chords. That these laryngeal muscles are associated by nervous connections with the general system is evident from observation, if it cannot be positively shewn by anatomy. An animal in the heat of pursuit has all its activities fired by contagion, and the vocal organs among the rest. Hence the sounds partake, in their expression, of the character of the animal's entire movement. Fierce, vehement, rapid movements of the body kindle up similar movements in the respiration and larynx, and sharp, hard, vehement sounds are the result. We may therefore state, in regard to vocal utterance, that it is inspired, first, by the mere tendency of every active organ to put forth its activity; and secondly, by communication or contagion from the other parts of the frame. To these we may add a third stimulus, derived from what may be called emotional states-grief, joy, terror, affection and the like; and fourthly, a still more refined stimulus from the pleasures of the effect on the ear.

What we have thus briefly noted respecting vocal utterance applies to expression in general, to the play of feature and member that accompanies and indicates the excitement that possesses the system at any one time. The law of homogeneous movement points out the necessary sympathy of the eye, the countenance, and the gesture, with whatever movements have been impressed on the other active organs. The inferior animals being unsophisticated in their expression, and incapable of putting forth the power of concealment and hypocrisy, are the best examples of this tendency to unity and identity of state, and consequent truthfulness in all their demonstrations.

The instinct of Imitation, which it would be a self-contradiction to call an acquired faculty, must also be pronounced an example of the same law of homogeneous movement. In imitating sounds the muscles of the ear are first sympathetically affected with the character of the original, and these aural muscles inspire a corresponding class of movements in the muscles of the larynx. The nervous connection between the ear and larynx may be very special and powerful, or it may be but slender; in the one case the imitation is easy and prompt, in the other it is difficult. In imitating actions and movements, the eye catches the original, and is itself similarly affected in following the course of the movement. The hand, foot, or body, fall in with the course thus impressed upon the eye; that is, they go through a corresponding course of motions up and down, to and fro, slow

or quick; and here the same remark holds true, that imitation will be easy in proportion to the goodness of the nervous communications between the circles of sight and the circles of movement of the other members. It may be observed in the human subject, that it is easier to imitate actions by the upper extremities than by the lower; the nervous connections between the eyes and the lower members apparently being much feebler than between the eyes and the upper members. But the goodness of these bonds of intercommunication among the nervous circles is subject to an infinity of variation among the various animal species.

These examples will serve to illustrate the application of the laws of nervous organisation which we have ventured to lay down as a basis of explanation of the commoner animal instincts. Before proceeding to a still higher class of instinctive and mental activities, some notice should be taken of the appetites and emotions that seem to pervade the animal kingdom, serving as the stimulants of those higher powers, and being in fact, along with the sensations, the end of existence to the brute nature in general.

Animal Appetites.

The term Appetite, or craving, points to certain states of irritated consciousness, requiring something to be done to supply a want or remedy a disorder. It is a kind of bodily feeling or sensation that may arise in any part of the system, in consequence of something being deficient or deranged in that part. There are certain special cravings that make up the ordinary class of appetites; such as thirst, hunger, exercise, repose, sleep, &c. These allude to the periodical wants, necessities, or cravings of the healthy system; and means have to be adopted for their regular and stated gratification. Their occurrence is at once a spur to the activity and an element in the happiness of life. They are of that imperious nature, that they leave the creature no alternative between the gnawings of their unsatisfied condition and the luxuriousness of their being fully gratified.

The appetites, therefore, are a species of our sensations arising not from outward objects, but from states of the bodily organs themselves, and directing attention upon those organs through the sense of locality or direction that we have in reference to all local feelings. The cravings for exercise, rest, or sleep, bring on their own gratification; but in the cases of hunger and thirst, and in the still more perplexing instances of pain and disease, there is not in the nervous circle of the appetite itself any provision for supplying the want or remedy. The only effect of the craving is to produce an irritation of feeling that spreads over the whole mental system, and leads to efforts being made by some of the many active capacities to allay the distress. Before all experience of the proper course of proceeding, there is nothing to be done but grope about, trying this thing or that thing till a hit is made that proves successful. The plan of acquiring knowledge and practical ability by groping, or trial and error, has to be practised to an unspeakable extent by all orders of created beings, and must be reckoned as a main source of the acquired capacities of man and beast. In the attempt to lull the inexplicable cravings of the animal system everything is tried that is within reach; sometimes a com

plete success is achieved, sometimes a total failure; and oftenest of all, the irritation disappears of itself.

With reference to the recurrent healthy appetites, every animal soon finds the means of gratification, or perishes. The preservation of the individual, and the continuance of the species, hang upon the satisfaction of the cravings of hunger and sexual desire; and if these objects are attained, it is a proof that means have been found of gratifying both appetites. In obtaining food, and in the cares of offspring, the animal tribes put forth all their powers and faculties, native and acquired: not the inborn instincts alone, but the whole range of cultivated intelligence, personal experience, direct imitation and traditions of race pertaining to each species, come into play in the battle of life, and in securing the family succession.

Animal Emotions.

Under this head we propose to call attention to certain impulses and states of excitement that do not fall under either sensations or appetites, as these are ordinarily conceived, but nevertheless belong to the mental system of the animal tribes. The term 'emotion' is used in common speech with great latitude and vagueness. There is, however, no apparent impropriety in employing it as the class-name for such manifestations as the following:

1. Resentment.-This is the name for the active impulses of an animal to repel, subdue, and utterly destroy everything that causes it pain, injury, or harm. In its higher forms of deliberate destructiveness, it is a complex effect, resulting from an extensive combination of feelings and energies. In its less complicated manifestations, it is closely connected with the peculiarities of nervous action already described: we will endeavour to indicate its different stages and degrees of complication.

The simplest form of an act of resentment is seen in the response of a circle of sense to any disagreeable or unacceptable sensation. When the contact of an outward object is painful, the returning influence goes to stimulate the muscles of extension and retraction of the part affected. A live-coal put on the paw of a quadruped, or on the hand of a human being, produces the instant movement of the member from the injurious contact. This vehement and rapid action, the result of the operation of the circles of sense by themselves, is the most elementary form, the first germ, so to speak, of the complex emotions, both of resentment and of terror.

But an act of resentment implies something more than the convulsive retraction of the bodily organs from harmful agencies. It includes the act of turning teeth, with all the energy of pursuit and all the destructive power of the animal, on whatever pains or menaces it; and the attack is usually directed against other sentient beings. The instinct of war and destructiveness is superadded to the act of withdrawing the system from injury, in the ordinary form of resentment; and this destructive tendency, where it exists, does not necessarily require the stimulus of hurt to bring it into play. It is a terrible inspiration belonging to many animal tribes, leading them to make war upon living beings in general, although usually accompanied with some other peculiarities of the mental system that determine a preference in the creatures attacked.

If we were asked to resolve this destructive inspiration into its simplest constituents, and to point out the portions of the animal framework that it most probably connects itself with, we should say that there appears to be two distinct elements in its composition-an appetite, and a system of active organs cut out as tools or instruments for destructive effects. The appetite that kindles the energies of all carnivorous creatures is an extraordinary and indescribable one: we can only speak of it as a thirst for blood, an excitement, a furor, that nothing will allay but the spectacle of a living creature prostrate, torn, and mangled at the feet of the destroyer. In alliance with the appetite of hunger, it displays itself in its most energetic moods; but, nevertheless, it is not to be confounded with mere hunger, for this feeling taken alone could not produce the exultation and ecstasy of the true carnivora at the death of a helpless victim. There is something in the organisation and tastes of creatures living upon flesh that tends to develop this inextinguishable fury of bloodthirstiness, so that the view or the scent of one of their ordinary animals of prey is enough to fire the impulse that lets loose all the active energies of wrath and destruction. But it is among the herbivora, with whom the appetite for animal food does not come into play, that we have examples of resentful energy in its purest form-as, for example, in the enraged bull or the angry deer.

The tools of destructive animals are very various: they may be teeth, claws, horns, poisoned fangs, crushing embraces, electric batteries, &c. These instruments are always supplied with muscles and nerves to maintain their action, and are associated with the general system, so as to fall under the law of accordance of state, and to come into play in harmony with the organs of sensation and appetite. The instinct of pursuit already alluded to supplies one portion of the destructive activity; and the forthputting of the organs serving as the tools, after a little groping and experience, completes the operation, and satiates the lust for blood, victory, and destruction. There is not the same degree of instinctive preparation for playing the part of an executioner that there is for the acts of walking, running, or pursuit; but the possession of the tools, the impulse to employ all the active agencies of frame whatsoever, and a little practice and experience suffice in the majority of cases to qualify for this melancholy occupation. There are higher cases of destructiveness, where nothing less than a concentration of all the endowments of instinct and cultivated intelligence will serve the end-as in the operations of the spider and the craftiness of the fox; but these are not necessary for the illustration of the mere emotion of resentment.

2. Terror. This expresses a state of feeling and manifestation common to the whole series of animal tribes, and only varying in degree according to the delicacy and susceptibility of the nervous organisation. It is a physical and mental condition of the frame, marked by tremor, trepidation, and a disposition to shrink or fly from the object causing it. There is a manifest loss of composure, ease, and of the power of being quiet or still; the convulsive movements and excited expression get beyond the control of the individual, or it may be of any foreign agency also. The causes of this disturbed condition of the system are, first, mere painful sensations; and, next, the apprehension of pain or danger as imminent. There are irrita