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"The history of education in this country, and the marvelous changes wrought by it during the last two quarters of a century afford, in my humble judgment, the strongest condemnation of the educational policy propounded by the government of India, and also the strongest support to the resolution itself. For some time after the establishment of the British supremacy in India no thought could be bestowed on the education of the people. But when the empire was consolidated and peace was proclaimed, better ideas dawned on our rulers.

"Warren Hastings was keenly alive to the importance of extension of oriental learning. Lord Moira recorded a minute in the judicial administration of Bengal, in which he fully recognized the duty of the state to promote the moral and mental advancement of the people. Several English schools were in the meanwhile established in Calcutta and the metropolitan districts, the first of these being one set up at Chinsurah by Mr. Robert May, a dissenting missionary, and which culminated in the college of Mahomea Moslem. These schools spread a taste for English learning. Availing themselves of this altered state of feeling, David Hare, Sir Hide East, and the leading members of the native community in 1816, established the Hindoo College. The Hindoo College, sir, proved a brilliant success. Its alumni were the first band of reformers who made noble exertions to improve and elevate their country. They were eager to communicate the knowledge they had acquired at the college to their less fortunate countrymen, and they established for this purpose several schools in and around Calcutta. Of these schools I have given a detailed list in a paper read by me at the Bengal Social Science Association.

"In 1835 the battle between the Orientalists and the Anglicists was decided in favor of the latter, and a new system of education inaugurated."

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"At present the extensive cultivation of some foreign language, which is always very improving to the mind, is rendered indispensable by the almost total absence of vernacular literature, and the consequent impossibility of obtaining a tolerable education from that source only.

"The study of English, to which many circumstances induce the natives to give the preference, and with it the knowledge of the learning of the West, is therefore daily spreading. This, as it appears to us, is the first stage in the process by which India is to be enlightened. The natives must learn before they can teach. The best educated among them must be placed in possession of some knowledge before they can transfer it into their own languages."

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"I know a host of educated natives who communicated their knowledge to their less fortunate countrymen in their own language and in the manner and form most acceptable to them. The cry that has been raised against them, that, having received a charity education in the colleges, they have done nothing for their country, is an unreasoning cry. Now, the truth is exactly the other way. The education they have received is neither a charity education, as shown by Mr. Atkinson and by the fact that the Hindoo school and Hare school are nearly self-supporting; nor is it true that they have failed in their duty as educators. Far from having done nothing, they have done a great deal in furtherance of the cause of education. They have been foremost in organizing schools, literary societies, and newspapers in every possible way. Their exertions in this direction have been most indefatigable and laudable, and instead of evoking the obloquy of a clique deserved the lasting gratitude of the public."

We have given these extracts as furnishing the latest summary of the present state of education in this province of British India, to be obtained from material in possession of this Bureau.

AUSTRIA.

EDUCATION OF THE WORKING CLASSES.

One of the greatest benefits yet conferred upon the working classes of Austria is the general school bill of the 14th of May, 1869, which renders national education compulsory, and greatly elevates the standard of it. In accordance with this law, compulsory attendance at school begins with every child at the age of six, and is continued uninterruptedly to the age of fourteen. But even then, (that is to say, at the end of his fourteenth year,) the child is only allowed to leave school on production of certified proof that he has thoroughly acquired the full amount of information which this great law fixes as the sine qua non minimum of education for every Austrian citizen. The prescribed educational course comprises reading, writing, and arithmetic; a sound knowledge of the native language, history, and chiefly, though not exclusively, that of the native country, embracing the political constitution and general social structure of it, geography in the same sense, all the more important branches of physical science, geometry, geometrical drawing, &c., singing, athletic exercises. Children employed in the large factories, or prevented by special circumstances from attending the com

munal school, may complete or continue their education at any special school supported by their employer, and the employers are authorized to found schools for that purpose. But it is a sine qua non condition that all such schools shall provide the full amount and quality of education required by law, and otherwise fulfill all the obligations prescribed by the general school bill, which subjects every school, whether private or public, to the instruction of the state. In places where a special trade school exists, the em ployer is bound to send his apprentices to it. In addition to the subjects of instruction above enumerated, every child is simultaneously provided with religious instruction in the creed to which he or she is born. The local ecclesiastical authorities or notables of the church or religious community to which each child belongs are entitled, and Indeed bound, by law to provide competent teachers for this purpose.

The free selection of the teachers is left entirely to these religious bodies, subject only to the certified proofs which the state exacts of the teacher's proficiency and general character. It is only in the event of the local religious communities declining to avail themselves of the privilege allotted to them by the law that the state steps in and undertakes the duty which they refuse to discharge. But this religious instruction, which is altogether denominational and on a footing of impartial equality for all religious sects, is kept by the state carefully apart from the secular education, which is, in every case, obligatory, and which it is in no case allowed to interfere with, or attempt to control. Nor are any private schools tolerated by the government which do not efficiently provide the prescribed amount of secular instruction; although, so long as this condition be fulfilled, the law imposes no limit to the foundation of private educational establishments.

Such is the education now provided in Austria for every child of the working classes.

EDUCATION IN AUSTRALIA.

VICTORIA.

This Bureau has received, with the request for the exchange of educational reports, the seventh report of the board of education of Victoria, for the year 1868, dated April 30, 1869, made to the governor, and by his excellency presented to both houses of Parliament. From the statistics given by the Hon. Benjamin F. Kane, secretary of the board, the following summary is taken:

Total population of the colony...

Total number of children of five to fifteen years of age.

683, 977

166, 907

Number attending common schools.

101, 925

Number attending private schools..

19, 009

Average attendance.

Total number of school establishments, whether denominational, national, or

58,420

common ...

798

834

Separate departments, each under a head teacher..

The board of education consists of five members, who hold their office for the term of five years. During the year 1868 the board held seventy-eight meetings.

REMARKS CONCERNING THE STATISTICS OF ATTENDANCE.

Five out of eight of the whole number of children between five and fifteen are attending schools, either public or private, according to estimates based upon data in possession of the board. Upon this subject the report states that

"In estimating the number of children receiving instruction, it must be borne in mind that a large number of children who do not attend either public or privato schools are taught at home by tutors and governesses, and by their parents; and probably every person who reads this report will be aware of many such cases. In many of the gold-fields, and in the bush more especially, children are taught in this manner, owing to the unwillingness of parents to send their children to schools in the absence of any other than common schools, to the preference of parents for home instruction, or for other reasons. We refrain from making any estimate of the number of children tanght by these persons, because the data upon which we have to work are too scanty to admit of that precision which should always characterize statistical information; but if we add those children under fifteen who, having received more or less education, are employed in pursuits which prevent their attendance at school, it will no doubt be found that they form in the aggregate a considerable portion of the whole.

"From the above figures we arrive at the conclusion that 17.70 per cent., or one in 5.65 of the total population, and 60.90, or nearly two out of three of children between five and fifteen years of age, are attending schools with an amount of regularity which

is not equaled either in England or America; and allowing for the facts that the children attending school vary from year to year, those attending one year leaving the next, and others taking their places; that many under fifteen have left school and are engaged in various employments; and that many others are taught by tutors, governesses, and parents, we believe we are justified in arriving at the conclusion that the number of children unprovided with education is less than is generally estimated, and that the great liberality of Parliament in providing for public education has not been unproductive of substantial fruit."

DESTITUTE CHILDREN ATTENDING SCHOOLS.

During the past year, under the operation of the rule reducing by one-half the amount paid by the board for the education of destitute and deserted children and orphans, the proportion of such children decreased about 20 or 26 per cent., while at the same time the aggregate proportion of the children attending school increased. Under the present regulations the following is the scale for such payments:

"For a single scholar above eight years of age, 44d. per week; for a single scholar under eight years of age, 3d. per week; when more than one attend from the same family, per scholar, 3d. per week. But in every such case a certificate must be furnished to the local committee, signed by a justice of the peace or registered clergyman, in form of A or B, Appendix K, and a copy thereof forwarded to the board; and the board will require to be satisfied that such case really exists. Every such certificate must be renewed half-yearly."

A return is submitted in the appendix, which gives interesting information relative to the proportion of destitute children attending schools of the different classes receiving aid. The following is a summary of the return:

"Roman Catholic common schools..

Church of England common schools
Wesleyan common schools....
Vested common schools ....

Presbyterian common schools..

Non-vested common schools.....

43.80 per cent. on the rolls. 27.34 per cent. on the rolls. 24. 69 per cent, on the rolls. 21.31 per cent. on the rolls. 20.35 per cent. on the rolls. 17.32 per cent. on the rolls.

"It will be observed from this table that the proportion of destitute children attending Roman Catholic schools far exceeds that of any other denomination or class of schools, being three-fifths more than that attending Church of England schools, fourfifths more than that attending Wesleyan schools, and more than double that attending any other schools. It will also be observed that the percentage of these children attending the non-vested schools (by which is meant schools which, although not actually vested in the board, are conducted upon the same principles, but which at the same time include many schools which are the private ventures of the teachers) is 17.32 per cent."

DIRECT GAIN TO TEACHERS BY DESTITUTE CHILDREN.

"It will be interesting to consider what direct pecuniary gain is now afforded to teachers by the destitute scholars. The direct gain is comprised in the payments by the board of school fees and for results; and, according to the returns for 1867, allowance being made for the reduction in the fee by one-half since that date, is as follows:

Fees.
£ s. d.
0751

Results. Total. £ 8. d. £ 8. d. 0571 0 13 01 09101 1

3 0

For each individual child on the rolls. For each individual child in average attendance.. 0 13 14 Showing that each child in average attendance is worth £1 38. per annum, or, counting 46 school-weeks in the year, sixpence per week, being 3.42 pence in fees, and 2.58 pence in results."

During 1868 aid was granted to forty-seven schools, of which twenty-seven were vested in the board; eleven were non-vested, having been established with the intention of being vested at a future time, or being conducted on the same principles; eight were connected with the Roman Catholic Church, and one with the Church of England. All schools receiving aid must follow the course of instruction laid down by the board, but other branches may be introduced with the sanction of the board. The report states that the sanction thus given has been abused in some instances, in which schools have been conducted in upper and lower departments-the former being established for children of a higher social position-where the pupils are separated and taught apart, extra fees being charged for instruction in extra subjects, imparted by special teachers. "We consider," says the report, "that any practice which has a tendency to restrict the benefits of a school to a particular class, or to exclude from its

benefits the mass of the people, or to recognize social distinctions in schools which are established for all alike, is not in accordance with the spirit of the common-school act, and should not be tolerated."

SCHOOL-BOOKS.

The school-books published under the authority of the commissioners of national education in Ireland are, as hitherto, more in demand in the schools of the colony than any other series, and this, it is stated, will continue to be the case as long as they are supplied at rates so much below all other publications of the kind.

EVENING SCHOOLS.

Every facility is afforded for the establishment of evening schools, and the regulations relative to the payment of results in force in day schools apply equally to them.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS

Is reported as still in an unsatisfactory state; the institution now in operation is doing good work, as far as its capabilities extend, in turning out some fair teachers. The superintendent is zealous and painstaking, but the institution, although under the direction of the Church of England, is little more than the private speculation of the master. A general training institution, unconnected with any denomination and on a more extended basis, is a desideratum, to which the board has directed its attention.

TEACHERS' SALARIES AUGMENTED BY RESULTS.

Under the law the minimum salaries of teachers are fixed; they may, however, augment them by results, as has been stated, according to the amount of improvement apparent in classes upon examination. The report states that "the amount which a school is now competent to gain under results, called the maximum increment, is 45 per cent. of the average fixed salaries paid to the school month per month. We have reserved to ourselves the power, subject to the approval of the governor in council, to increase or diminish this maximum increment as the interests of education may require, or the amount voted by Parliament may render necessary. We have also provided that the balance, if any, of the amount set apart for results which may remain unexpended at the end of the present year, may, at our discretion, be distributed among all the schools."

PUPIL-TEACHERS.

There is a system of pupil-teachers in operation, by which teachers are educated and fitted by experience for the work. These teachers receive salaries, and are permitted to improve their education by taking lessons out of school hours, under certain restrictions. A late rule adopted by the board of education upon this subject is as follows: "That pupil-teachers be of the same sex as the principal teacher of the school or department of a school in which they are employed; but in mixed schools, or departments of schools, under a master and mistress, female pupil-teachers may receive instruction out of school hours from the master, on condition that some adult female, approved by the local committee and by the inspector, be invariably present during the whole time that the lessons are being given by the teacher; provided also that the teacher and said adult female be not both young and unmarried."

This rule is somewhat similar to that adopted under the committee of council of education in England, but it is not so stringent. "It is unnecessary," says the report, "to make any remarks as to the advisability of such a rule."

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.

One of the prominent features of the school system is that of inspection, for which £6,800 was voted in 1868. The school system of Victoria also embraces many interesting peculiarities, to gain a full idea of which, the report should be examined.

EDUCATION IN ECUADOR.

Ecuador boasts of one university and eleven colleges, yet the people are not educated. Literature, science, philosophy, law, medicine, are only names. Nearly all young gentlemen are doctors of something; but their education is strangely dwarfed, defective, and distorted; and their knowledge, such as they have, is without power as it is without practice. The University of Quito has 285 students, of whom 35 are

pursuing law, and 18 medicine. There are 11 professors. They receive no fees from the students, but an annual salary of $300. The library contains 11,000 volumes, nearly all old Latin, French, and Spanish works. The cabinet is a bushel of stones cast into one corner of a lumber room, covered with dust, and crying out in vain for a man in the university to name them. The College of Tacunga has 45 students; a fine chemical and philosophical apparatus, but no one to handle it; and a set of rocks from Europe, but only a handful from Ecuador. The College of Riobamba has 4 professors and 120 students. In the common schools, the pupils study in concert aloud, Arab fashion. There are four papers in the republic: two in Guayaquil, one in Cuenca, and one in Quito. El Nacionel, of the capital, is an official organ, not a newspaper. It contains 14 duodecimo pages, and is published occasionally by the Minister of the Interior. Like the Gazeta, of Madrid, it is one of the greatest satires ever deliberately published by any people on itself. There is likewise but one paper in Cuzco, El Triumfo del Pueblo.-The Andes and the Amazon-Prof. James Orton.

MEDICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED

STATES.

"The medical faculty, in common with all enlightened members of the profession, desire earnestly that a rule might prevail in our country like that which prevails in most of the universities of Europe by which a liberal education should be the necessary introduction to professional study. The sciolist easily runs into the empiric, but he who has obtained a thorough scientific discipline knows how to discriminate between visionary conjectures and established truths."-Catalogue of the University of Michigan, 1870.

A consideration of medical education is properly introduced by a short account of the number, public standing, relation to government, and organization of—

(I.) THE MEDICAL PROFESSION OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. Number.-The total tax collected during the year 1869 by the Internal Revenue Bureau from physicians and surgeons was $505,785 55. From this it is estimated that the number of practicing physicians and surgeons in the United States is over 50,000. 2. Public Standing. The profession is divided in this country into various schools or systems, founded on various theories of disease or treatment or medication. The hydropathic or water-cure, the eclectic, and homœopathic systems of practice forming the minority. But the vast majority of reputable practitioners in this country, as well as in other countries, belong to what they denominate simply the system or the regular system of medicine, repudiating any less extended or more descriptive designation.

The practitioners of all these systems seem to depend for their individual recognition by the public upon their individual qualities, personal and professional.

3. Relation to the Government.-Practically the medical profession in the United States stands in precisely the same relation to the State governments and to the General Government as is held by all the other professions and occupations. The National Government taxes a practitioner yearly, and, with the exception of the usages of the Army and Navy, takes no further supervision of the profession as such. The States, with perhaps one or two exceptions, take no action as to its character, the conditions of entrance, education, membership, or compensation; they grant charters for hospitals and medical schools very often without consulting the needs of the profession or the public good, or even investigating the personal or professional character of the incorporators. Counties and towns employ physicians and surgeons for the care of the sick poor in their limits, (though this practice is by no means as universal as it should be;) and the larger cities of the country have established boards of health, and have devised various and often valuable regulations for public hygiene.

4. Professional organization. The total absence of governmental authority above referred to, and the needs of the profession, have combined to force it to organize itself. The physicians of a city or county have formed medical associations of a simple but generally efficient character. The objects of these societies may be generally described as being to impart information to each other, and to regulate the conduct of the members toward the public and the profession, to settle the scale of fees, &c. In many of the States the local and county societies, combining with the medical boards of the hospitals and the faculties of the medical schools, form State associations. The national organization is known as the American Medical Association, which is composed of delegates from the city, county, and State associations, medical college faculties, hospital staffs, and the medical corps of the United States Army and Navy.

The peculiarity of these associations is that they are perfectly powerless to coerce errant members of the profession. They can only annoy, they cannot punish.

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