[1542-1823 A.D.] transferred to Gracias á Dios. In 1555, it was again removed to Guatemala, then to Panama, and finally to the capital. The tranquillity which the genius of Alvarado had secured to the province was buried with him. Faction, exasperated by the temporary obstruction, broke out fiercer than ever. Public morals were depreciated to the very lowest scale. Justice was but a name - crimes of the deepest and darkest dye were committed with impunity, and the criminals bought off from retribution by trifling sums. The Indians were treated as brutes in short, all government was at an end — anarchy, crime, and reckless audacity rioted over the ruins of the Indian civilisation. Such was the condition of affairs for a great portion of the long period of the Spanish dominion in Guatemala, till at last the country was ripe for revolu

tion.

The first symptoms of dissatisfaction exhibited by the Indians and others, was after the invasion of Spain by France, in 1808. The deepest anxiety was manifested throughout the whole of the Peninsular War, and the subsequent continental struggles. But after the fall of Napoleon, hardly had Spain adopted a constitution when Guatemala, anxious to extirpate the remnant of absolute tyranny, appropriated the same one to herself without any alteration. But the formation of a junta in the following year, with absolute power to settle "indispensable" measures, gave rise to two parties, one in favour of entire emancipation from both Spain and Mexico; the other advocating the installation of the Bourbon family on the throne of Central America. The old Spanish party, supported by Leon, the capital of Nicaragua and Comayagua, capital of Honduras, were in favour of the latter course; but the greater part of the cities and provinces adhered to the act of independence proclaimed by the junta.

REVOLUTION IN CENTRAL AMERICA

Such was the situation of affairs when, on the 19th of October, 1821, Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, addressed to the inhabitants of Guatemala a manifesto, in which, after having complimented them on their independence, he announced that, to consolidate their growing liberties, he would direct a numerous body of troops to their frontiers. This strange proclamation was not received by the independents as favourably as the emperor had wished; but the influential members of the Spanish party solicited his protection, changing the appellation of his troops from that of "servants" to "imperialists." This faction chose as their chief, Filisola, president of the junta; and by him the proclamation of Iturbide was distributed throughout the different provinces. Not satisfied with this, he joined with it an invitation to the people to merge their nationality into that of Mexico; and he even took upon himself the responsibility, as president of the junta, to declare the union effected (January 11th, 1822).

The indignation of the people at this arbitrary stretch of power rose to the utmost pitch. The junta was dissolved. The president marched with some troops against San Salvador, but was completely beaten (July 3rd). Defeated a second time by the people of the same province (February 23rd, 1823), he recommenced his march to Guatemala, where he received news of the revolution which had precipitated Iturbide from the imperial throne. The blow was astounding his last hope was gone; he immediately gave up all resistance and consented to the act of independence. A national convention, having immediately assembled, ordered the Mexican troops to leave the country. Filisola led them out in person, taking possession, during his

[1823-1827 A.D.]

march, of the province of Chiapas, which he claimed for Mexico. This act was afterwards made good by Mexico, and Chiapa has ever since remained a fruitful source of dissension between the two countries.

FORMATION OF A REPUBLIC

This obstacle being removed, the national assembly met again on the 24th of June, 1823. Complete independence was declared on the 21st of July, and on the 17th of December, the basis of a new constitution, modelled after that of the United States, was proclaimed to the nation. The republic was styled the "United Provinces of Central America." On the 6th of September, 1824, congress completed the basis of the confederation at Costa Rica; nine days after (15th) the federal congress was installed; and on the 22nd of November, the constitution was solemnly signed by the deputies.

Thus Guatemala had proclaimed her freedom and established a republican constitution; but very soon she was to learn by bitter experience that something more than these is necessary to secure the tranquillity and happiness of the people. Hardly had the instrument of independence been signed when fierce party spirit again sowed seeds of discord among the populace. The citizens were divided into aristocrats, or centralists, and federalists. The former wished to consolidate and centralise the powers of the general government. They were composed principally of influential families, who, pampered during the domination of the Spaniards with privileges and exorbitant monopolies, had gradually imbibed the state and feelings of the European nobility. The federalists, on the contrary, were led by men, young and energetic, many of whom were actuated by an ardent love of country, a desire to set her free, and a disgust at the former civil oppression. They advocated the supremacy of the states, and freedom of conscience in religious matters. At the third session of congress, the two parties came to an open rupture. Soon after, the vice-president, Flores, visited the city of Quezaltenango, where he had rendered himself odious by his republican principles, and by levying a contribution on its convent. Seeing him in their city, the religious orders now excited the common people against him, and soon an infuriated mob was before his house exclaiming, "Death to the heretic!" Flores ran to the church; but, when entering, he was seized by some women, his face and head severely beaten, and his life placed in the most imminent danger. By desperate exertions, he escaped into the church; but even here he was not secure. The bell rang, crowds collected from all quarters, and, although opposed by the soldiery, forced their way into the church. Fearful of the result, the priest came forward with a crucifix, and implored the people to spare the officer, promising to send him immediately from the city. The unhappy man confirmed these words on his knees. But all was of no avail. The populace rushed upon him, dragged him into the convent, and delivered him into the hands of its women. He soon expired under their dreadful treatment, and the body was submitted to the insults of the mob. Crowds then rushed through the streets, exclaiming, "Viva la religion!-death to the heretics of congress." Encouraged by this success, the centralists of the province of Guatemala rose in open rebellion, and extirpated the republicans.

These outrages roused the indignation of the inhabitants of San Salvador, who resolved to avenge the patriots of Guatemala. Accordingly, on the 6th of March, 1827, their army appeared before the gates of the capital, and threatened it with complete destruction. But religious fanaticism was too powerful to be easily intimidated. The priests ran, exhorting the people to

[1827-1851 A.D.]

take arms; the nuns and other women assembled with knives in their hands, swearing that every enemy of their religion should perish by their hands. The army of San Salvador was in the issue entirely defeated.

REPUBLICANS AND CENTRALISTS

The other provinces of Guatemala were in a like condition. In Nicaragua, the streets were barricaded, the chief centralist and his soldiers massacred, part of the city burned to the ground, and the two parties so exasperated against each other that, for three months, even an ambassador could not be sent from one to the other. The war continued with but little intermission for two years, at which time (1829) the troops of San Salvador, under General Morazan, again marched against Guatemala. After three days' continual battle, the city was taken. Å scene of stern retribution followed. The leaders of the centralists were exiled, the convents opened and sacked, monastic orders abolished, the nuns sent from the country, and the archbishop driven into exile.

In 1831, Morazan was elected president of the republic; and for eight years managed the public affairs with a degree of quiet long unknown to the country But at the expiration of his second term, signs of faction began to reappear. Many of the banished centralists had maintained a correspondence with those at home, some even venturing to return. These attentively watched an opportunity to recover their lost ascendency. They found a leader in the notorious Čarrera, a mulatto who from an obscure station had raised himself to the command of numerous parties who infested the highroads. This individual kept the country in a state of continual ferment, and, though often defeated, he still managed to rally round him the priests, Indians, and most of the centralists. The capital and other cities were several times taken, and shocking excesses committed on the opposite faction. Morazan was finally driven into exile, and with him fell the republican party.b

REPUBLIC DIVIDED INTO CONSTITUENT STATES

From that time on the "republic of Central America" was only a geographical conception. Every one of the five states had its own independent government and all attempts to restore the union failed on account of inner discord, or were defeated by force of arms. The defeat of the allies by Carrera at Arada (February 2nd, 1851) was a severe blow to the federalists. All that could be attained after that were treaties between the single states for the preservation of peace and for the promotion of commerce. A political union with a joint congress in the style of the North American Union appeared to be an impossibility. There were as many separate governments and presidents as there were states. Internal quarrels and party disputes, a supreme magistracy without authority and mutual rivalries weakened political power. Thus it came about that William Walker, a North American adventurer of courage and enterprise, was able to make himself commander-in-chief in Nicaragua and maintained a dictatorial power for some years, until finally in an attack upon Honduras he was seized by the English and delivered up to the magistrates who had him shot in Truxillo. A political execution took place shortly afterwards in Costa Rica also, and the former president, Rafael Mora, who had attempted to regain his earlier position by force of arms, was captured and shot in San José. The war in Mexico had an influence upon Central America, where aristocratic, democratic, and clerical elements were

[1851–1904 A.D.]

continually warring against one another. Here also liberals and conservatives were ranged against each other and fought for the supremacy. Under these circumstances the able General Carrera of Guatemala attained to dictatorial authority. Unlike the Mexican General Juarez he leaned for support on the clerical and conservative party, so that he was accused of conspiring with Emperor Maximilian and of seeking after monarchical power. But before the sanguinary tragedy of Queretaro was ended Carrera died suddenly. A few months later Barrios of San Salvador, who for years had been his opponent and rival, upon his attempt to regain the presidency was shot in his former capital by the command of his victorious successor Dueñas. After that the five states of Central America continued in the old way without central authority and without influence on the political conditions of the two hemispheres.d

In 1884 and 1885 another attempt was made under the influence of President Barrios of Guatemala to unite the Central American states in federation, but this attempt failed like the others before it. In 1895 Honduras, Salvador and Nicaragua united in the Greater Republic of Central America but before the new system had gone into operation, a revolution in Salvador (1898) prevented the execution of the plan although a diet had been convened and administrative officials appointed. The Greater Republic was dissolved into its separate states.

The individual histories of the Central American states deal mainly with internal disturbances or quarrels with one another and have little interest for the rest of the world or influence on its history. Nicaragua made treaties with Spain (1850), Belgium (1858), France (1859), and the United States (1867) concerning the neutrality of a Nicaraguan Canal; and in 1884 the United States negotiated the Frelinghuysen-Zarala Treaty with Nicaragua according to which the United States was to build the canal, but the treaty was not ratified. The Nicaragua Canal Association and its efforts were mentioned in connection with the Panama Canal. The Nicaragua route appears now to be definitely abandoned."

THE first person who discovered the coast of Brazil was Vicente Yañez Pinzon, who had sailed with Columbus on his first voyage as commander and master of the Niña. Seven years afterwards he and his nephew Arias obtained a commission to go in search of new countries and trade in any which Columbus had not previously appropriated. The Pinzons set sail from Palos in December, 1499, made the Cape Verds, then steered to the southwest, and were the first Spaniards who crossed the line and lost sight of the north star. They saw land on January 26th, 1500, to which Vicente gave the name of Cape Consolation, but which is now called Cape St. Augustine. From hence they coasted along toward the north. Vicente continued his course till he came to the Orinoco, then made for the islands, and sailed homeward, losing two of his three ships by the way. The coast which Pinzon had discovered lay within the Portuguese limits of demarcation, and before he reached Europe it had been taken possession of by the nation to whom it was allotted.b

The Portuguese king Emmanuel determined to send a fleet to establish friendship and a treaty of commerce with the king of Calcutta. For the command of this fleet, which consisted of ten caravels, and three larger vessels, a hidalgo was chosen. It was determined that the fleet should sail on the 9th of March, 1500. On the 14th of March the fleet passed the Canaries and to profit by the prevailing northeast trade wind they stood so much to the westward that, on the 21st of April they met with signals of land, and late the following day they saw a large round mountain with small hills which were the highest portions of the Sierra, now called Aimorés. Cabral gave the mountain the name of Mount Pascal [because it was Easter time], and the land he called Vera Cruz. Emmanuel was so delighted with the discovery of Vera Cruz that he resolved to send out another squadron to explore minutely its extent; and it appears that three caravels were ordered to sail upon this project from the Tagus on the 1st of May, 1501, but there is a considerable doubt who was the commander of them; some say it was Amerigo Vespucci, others that it was Gonzalo Collho.c