the coming on of the increasing cold, are matters of no small geological interest."-Lyell, Antiq. of Man,' p. 208. Besides the beds of crag which contain the geological evidence thus referred to, the central and N.-W. portions of both Suffolk and Norfolk, are districts of chalk and chalk-marl, forming portions of the great chalk-band which crosses England from the coast of Devonshire to that of Yorkshire.

The " crag," or shelly and sandy gravel of Norfolk and Suffolk, has long been used in agriculture to fertilize soils deficient in calcareous matter, or to render them less stiff and impervious. "In Suffolk, the older pliocene strata called crag, are divisible into the Coralline, and the Red crags,-the former being the older of the two. In Norfolk, a more modern formation, commonly termed the Norwich, or sometimes the mammaliferous crag, which is referable to the newer pliocene period, occupies large areas." The pliocene or tertiary beds, it must be remembered, stand immediately before the posttertiary; the pliocene being divided into "older" and "newer." The successive relation of the crag beds to each other is-Coralline (oldest), Red, and Norwich. Careful tables, showing the proportion of recent to extinct species of marine testacea in each of these beds, will be found in Lyell (Antiq. of Man,' p. 209). "By far the greater number of the living marine species included in these tables, are still inhabitants of the British seas; but even these differ considerably in their relative abundance, some of the commonest of the crag shells being now extremely scarce, . . . and others, rarely met with in a fossil state, being now very common." One of the tables throws light on a marked alteration in the climate of the three successive periods. "In the coralline crag there are twenty-seven southern shells, including twenty-six Mediterranean, and one West Indian species (Erato Maugeria). Of these, only thirteen occur in the red crag, associated with three new southern species, while the whole of them disappear from the Norwich beds. On the other hand, the coralline crag contains only two shells closely related to arctic forms of the genera Admete and Limopsis. The red crag contains eight northern species, all of which recur in the Norwich crag, with the addition of four others, also inhabitants of the arctic regions; so that there is good evidence of a continual refrigeration of climate during the pliocene period in Britain. . . . . The cold, which had gone on increasing from the time of the coralline to that of the Norwich crag, continued, though not, perhaps, without some oscillations of temperature, to become more and more severe after the accumulation of the Norwich craz, until it reached its maximum in what has been called the Glacial epoch. The marine fauna of this last period contains, both in Ireland and Scotland, recent species of mollusca now living in Greenland, and other seas far north of the areas where we find their remains in a fossil state. . . . . The most southern point to which the marine beds of the Norwich crag have yet been traced, is at Chillesford, near Woodbridge, in Suffolk, ... where, as Messrs. Prestwich and Searles [Essex, &c.]

с

Wood have pointed out, they exhibit decided marks of having been deposited in a sea of much lower temperature than that now prevailing in the same latitude. Out of twenty-three shells obtained in that locality from argillaceous strata, twenty feet thick, two only . . . . are extinct, and not a few of the other species. . betray a northern and some of them an arctic character."-Lyell.

The eastern portions of both Norfolk and Suffolk are covered with sands and clays of the Eocene period, within and upon which lie beds and basins of the more recent crag. The crag covers the wider surface

area.

The succession and manner in which the newer pliocene (Norwich crag) strata, and the post-pliocene (tertiary) rest upon the chalk, is nowhere seen and studied with more advantage than at Cromer. The cliffs vary in height from 50 ft. to above 300 ft.; and from Weybourne to Cromer, a distance of seven miles, the Norwich crag reposes immediately on the chalk. A vast majority of its shells are of living species, and some few extinct. East of Cromer, a remarkable forestbed (described in NORFOLK, Rte. 24) rests on the chalk, occupying the place held W. of the jetty by the Norwich crag. Above this forestbed and its connected fluvio-marine series of deposits, is a mass of boulder-clay, from 20 ft. to 80 ft. in thickness, of the glacial period, and containing far-transported erratic blocks, some of them polished and scratched. The forest-bed seems to have extended along the Norfolk coast, and across the mouth of the Wash, to the coast of Lincolnshire. It is found in the neighbourhood of Hunstanton (NORFOLK, Rte. 29). There may, however, be some doubt whether the forest-bed, occasionally uncovered at that place by the tide, is of the same age as that at Cromer. The age of the Cromer forest-bed, is, as has been said, post-pliocene; and Sir Charles Lyell regards it as belonging to a time when the whole of these islands were united to the Continent (see Cromer, Rte. 24). The following is a list of mammalia, the remains of which have been discovered in it:Elephas meridionalis, E. primigenius, E. antiquus, Rhinoceros etruscus, Hippopotamus (major?), Sus scrofa, Equus (fossil ?), Ursus (sp. ?) Canis Lupus, Bison priscus, Megaceros hibernicus, Cervus capreolus, C. tarandus, C. Sedgwickii, Arvicola amphibia, Castor Cuvieri, C. Europaus, Palæospulax magnus, Trichecus rosmarus (walrus), Monodon monoceros (narwhal), Balanoptera.

Between the period in which the Norwich crag was deposited, and that of the growth of this ancient forest, some mammalia (such as Mastodon arvernensis) seem to have died out. In the interval there was, no doubt, time for other modifications. "We must suppose repeated oscillations of level, during which, land covered with trees, an estuary with its freshwater shells, and the sea with its Mya truncata and other mollusca, still retaining their erect position, gained by turns the ascendency. These changes were accompanied by some denudation, followed by a grand submergence of several hundred feet, probably brought about slowly, and when floating ice aided in transorting erratic blocks from great distances.”—Lyell.

At Mundesley, on the coast S. of Cromer, is a remarkable valley scooped out of the cliffs at a comparatively recent period, and filled with newer freshwater strata. (See these described, NORFOLK, Rte. 23.) These deposits are post-glacial, and are of the same character as those at Hoxne in Suffolk, one of the earliest places (if not quite the earliest) at which flint implements of the Amiens type were discovered.

Horne (see SUFFOLK, Rte. 29), lies in the valley of the Waveney; and the discovery of flint weapons there is duly recorded by Mr. Frere, in the Archæologia,' for 1800. Specimens of the spearheads then sent to London are preserved in the British Museum, and in the collection of the Society of Antiquaries. The brick-pit in which they were found is still worked. As at Mundesley, a hollow has been excatated in the older formations, which are-chalk with flints (lowest), then a bed of sand and gravel, and then the boulder clay or glacial drift. The scooped hollow extends to the bottom of the boulder clay, and is filled with peaty and clayey beds, and (above) with beds of sand and gravel. All these beds contain freshwater shells and bones of mammalia; and in the upper beds of sand and gravel, the flint implements are found. From the lower beds have been extracted bones of elephant, deer, and horse, besides fragments of wood, of oak, yew. and fir. "Although many of the old implements have recently been discovered in situ in regular strata no bones of extinct mammalia seem as yet to have been actually seen in the same stratum with one of the tools. The flint weapons," continues Sir Charles Lyell, "which I have seen from Hoxne, are so much more perfect, and have their cutting-edge so much sharper than those from the valley of the Somme, that they seem neither to have been used by man nor to have been rolled in the bed of a river. The opinion of Mr. Frere, therefore, that there may have been a manufactory of weapons on the spot, appears probable.' Antiq. of Man,' pp. 167-9.

....

At Icklingham, in the valley of the Lark, below Bury St. Edmund's. there is a bed of gravel, in which teeth of Elephas primigenius, aud several flint tools, chiefly of a lance-head form, have been found.

The marshy district of the Norfolk Broads-very curious and interesting-belongs to the latest post-tertiary period, and is fully described in NORFOLK, Rte. 22.

TRAVELLER'S VIEW.

§ 39. What has been said of the general character of Essex, may almost be repeated with regard to Norfolk and Suffolk. Both contain much pleasant country,-and the N. coast of Norfolk (in the neighbourhood of Cromer) is very picturesque; but the scenery of East Anglia is not to be ranked with that of the bolder and more varied English counties. It has, nevertheless, its own distinctive charm and character. Its softer features are reflected very faithfully in many of Constable's best pictures. Some of Gainsborough's land

scapes show us the wooded banks of the Orwell, and the deep lanes near it; and parts of the coast have been found worth careful study by such artists as Turner and Collins. The Norfolk School of artists, represented by Cotman, Crome, Stark, and Stannard, is now well known throughout England. Their well-deserved fame has come late. It may well be said, "Had it been early, it had been kind "-a tithe of the recognition their labours have received in recent years would have gladdened the hearts of those careful students of nature, had it been accorded before their patient bands were still in death.

Allusion has already been made to Constable, a Suffolk man, and a true British artist: to whom belongs the honour not only of perpetuating on his canvas the characteristic traits of English skies and landscapes, but also that of being the founder and model of the present school of landscape in France.

The most striking districts, and those most generally interesting in the two counties, are-in Suffolk-the banks of the Orwell (Rte. 12), well worth visiting by all who care for fine combinations of woodland and marine scenery; the valley of the Stour, especially about Dedham (Rte. 12), Constable's country, which he loved to paint; and the neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmund's (Rte. 14). In Norfolk, the most attractive districts are-Cromer and its neighbourhood (Rte. 24),—where the coast scenery is by far the best on this side of England, south of the Yorkshire cliffs; the very curious Broad country (Rte. 22); and some of the country round Norwich. Except at Cromer, the coast of the two countries is flat and unpicturesque. But there is a grand open sea-in itself sufficient to recommend such watering-places as Yarmouth and Lowestoft, besides the many smaller ones (Aldborough, Southwold, Mundesley), which occur at intervals.

The towns in the two counties-Ipswich, Bury St. Edmund's, Norwich, Yarmouth, King's Lynn-all offer points of high interest, duly noticed in the several routes. Over them, and indeed over the whole of East Anglia, there rests a special air of antiquity, rendering the country one of the highest interest to the archæologist. The churches aiready noticed, are such as can be equalled in few parts of England. The military antiquities are hardly less important, though of course less numerous; and historical sites and associations are frequent. The naturalist will find much to attract and occupy him in the peculiar geological formations, the "crag" of Norfolk and Suffolk,-as well as in the fields of ornithology and botany. In the latter science the two countries have produced many eminent men, among whom we may name Sir James Smith, the father of English Botany; Mr. Dawson Turner, known for his works on Marine Botany; Sir W. Jackson Hooker, author of many works on English and Foreign Botany; and his son, Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker, C.B. (President of the Royal Society), who has succeeded his father as Director of the Royal Gardens at Kew. Norfolk, it need hardly be said, is the paradise of sportsmen. In no other part of England are the preserves so extensive, so well stocked, or so well cared for.

The Norfolk fowl-farms,-whence comes the vast supply of turkeys and other poultry that travels to London at Christmas time-are famous. They are scattered over the county; but some of the largest are in the neighbourhood of Norwich. A visit to a large fowlfarm is hardly to be recommended. The odour of yards and fields inhabited by enormous flocks of geese and of turkeys is not so aromatic as that which salutes us when the bird itself "smokes upon the board."

EXTENT AND GENERAL CHARACTER.

§ 40. CAMBRIDGESHIRE is one of the smaller English counties. Its greatest length is about 45 miles; its greatest breadth about 30 miles. The face of the country is in reality much varied; but the hills and rising grounds are nowhere of great importance; and the fens, forming part of the Great Bedford Level, which cover the northern part of the county, are so striking and extensive, that the general impression of Cambridgeshire is that of a complete level. The southern border of Cambridgeshire is chalk, with low hills. The Gogmagog Hills, the highest in the county (though elsewhere they would hardly be more than "rising ground "), are in this chalk district. Elm-trees grow to some size in the valleys. The west of the county, and some part of the centre, is covered by the beds of greensand and gault, which everywhere form the northern border of the chalk. There is some very rich soil on this formation, especially about Wimpole, where there is much wood.

The Isle of Ely formed anciently a distinct enclosure within the county. It was, in effect, though not in name, a County Palatine, subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely, who ruled within its bounds almost as authoritatively as the Bishop of Durham governed his "Bishoprick." Except the County Palatine of Chester, these were the only separate and exclusive jurisdictions in England. The temporal jurisdiction of the bishops of Ely continued until 1837. "The tables of this county," says Fuller, "are as well furnished as any; the south part affording bread and beer, and the north (the Isle of Ely) meat thereunto. So good is the grain growing here, that