acquire greater skill in this, the work would naturally be turned off faster, and would be cheaper.

The manufacturers, however, soon perceived that in many things their operatives worked only with their hands, without using their heads at all; and that such unintellectual hand-work might often be performed by machines instead of human hands. Thus the invention and perfection of machines, in England especially, became the third step (on Smith's principles) in industrial development. The further this step is carried, so much will unintelligent manual labor be disused. There will at last remain only such arts and trades as require the exertion not of the hands only, but of the mind also; and laborers who like machines repeat all their lives long one and the same operation without change or aiming at improvement, will almost disappear.

IV. SERVILE ART AND FREE FINE ART.

The method of improving industry by the division of labor leads. to the perfection of industrial products, which we find among the English particularly; to the manufacture of articles at once well made, cheap, and convenient. But to another department of the culture of industry, the English seem less inclined; and indeed their manufacturing system seems to be directly opposed to it.

Free fine art is in part a product of the prosperity of industrial art, which is its root. From the day-laborer who with difficulty builds him a hut of mud to the architect of the cathedral of Cologne, from the stone-mason who hews blocks for house-building to Phidias, from the potter who makes common pots and kettles to the designers of the beautiful antique vases, from the poor man who digs in his garden to the most accomplished landscape gardener, there is an unbroken succession of grades.

The great Durer began as a goldsmith, and proceeded from that to painting, and to copperplate and wood engraving.

In the poorest hut we find ornamental articles designed not for necessity but for luxury. The poor man's dishes are painted; and in his garden he raises not only cabbages and turnips to live on, but flowers for pleasure. Thus we find everywhere, even in the lowest grades of society, and thence upward to the highest, a desire after But even in the highest grades, the curse of humanity prevails; and the loftiest conceptions of the artist can be realized only by painful labor, "in the sweat of the face."

freedom and beauty.

V. INSTINCTIVE ART IMPELS TOWARD FREE SCIENTIFIC ART.

As scientific men learn from artists, so on the other hand, practi

tioners in industrial and fine arts study the sciences which are related to their art. Thus miners, like Werner and Oppeln, became distinguished mineralogists; apothecaries, like Klaproth, Rose, Gehlen, eminent chemists; gardeners, botanists; dyers, workers in metal, &c., apply themselves to natural science, and mechanicians and machinists to the mathematics. Albrecht Durer and Leonardo da Vinci, after bringing perspective to a high degree of perfection in their art, applied themselves to the consideration of its principles, and wrote on the subject.

Thus practitioners of arts raise themselves from mere instinctive readiness to a reflective acquaintance with the laws of that which they practice. They labor powerfully and perseveringly for the progress of science, and from the knowledge of this, again, they derive rules and methods for the perfection of their art.

VI. SKILL IN ART AND SKILL IN SPEECH.

While men of science need an acquaintance with art, in order to make themselves understood by artists and artizans through the medium of actual work, it should be the endeavor of the latter to obtain skill in oral and written language, in order to be able to describe their work, and to discuss it intelligently with men of science. A scientific man who can talk passably, can discuss even work which he neither understands nor can do; while on the other hand, the working man who is destitute of all culture in language, can not speak clearly even about what he both understands and can do.*

VII. DIFFICULTIES.

The idea that operatives and working people should be trained in free art and in scientific knowledge, and that they should be made able to give competent oral or written accounts of their labor, seems in modern times to have occasioned the establishment of industrial schools.

This idea, if misunderstood, however, may occasion the most dangerous errors. For the sake of preventing these, I observe :—

1. Only an operative who is thorough and skillful in understanding and practicing the substantial portions of his art, should undertake to proceed in joining beauty with it. No one is grateful for a handsomely formed stove which will not heat; for an elegant country house which is inconvenient and soon falls to pieces; for handsome

* With the discovery of printing, gradually arose the distinction between the reading and non-reading classes; especially as the Reformation made the Bible, hy mn-book and catechism the books of the people. Would not this course of events cause the people gradually to lose their creative instinct for language, and at the same time develop correcter and clearer modes of expression?

tables or bureaus which warp and crack. First comes the useful, then the beautiful.*

2. Only the operative who has acquired complete skill in his em- . ployment, should think of scientific development. God preserve us from any exclusively scientific instruction for journeymen. They should first execute well, and then reflect upon it. Their executive labor should be done unconsciously, as instinctively as bees work, in forming their mathematically regular cells with the utmost certainty.. One who is entirely sure of his skill, may then only occupy himself in thinking upon what he does. To speculate before that time, is to incur such a risk as that of the somnambulist who breaks his neck if awakened while walking on a roof. He falls into a miserable condition of half-knowledge and half-capacity.t

3. The power of oral or written representation, like the study of the scientific side of an art, should be sought for only after complete skill has been attained. Only the real master, who feels his actions entirely free in the practice of his art, can speak or write to any purpose upon it :

"Verbaque provisam rem non invita sequentur."

VIII. SEPARATION AND UNION.

I hope not to be misunderstood, as if I recommended an intermixture of entirely distinct occupations and means of education. Very far from it. Every man has, generally speaking, faculties adapted for every human purpose; but in a higher grade for some purposes, and in a lower for others. On this principle is founded the saying, "Nihil humanum a me alienum puto." That for which each man has the best capacity, what he can most thoroughly master, is his vocation. In this he will take his civic place as a master; it is really his possessions, and even his superfluity, from which he imparts to others, that he may in turn receive from theirs.

It is an error to aim at an averaged, uniform, universal culture, with no reference to any one prominent vocation. Artizans and

*"Wouldst thou seem graceful without certainty of movement? In vain. Grace is a result of perfected power."-Goethe.

This observation (No. 2) is true, I imagine, of all instruction. Instinctive knowledge must precede all conscious acquired knowledge; simple speaking, a knowledge of language; sing. ing and instrumental execution, thorough bass; drawing, perspective: seeing and hearing, optics and acoustics: skill in analysis, chemistry; knowledge of mining, the science of it. Our present modes of instruction frequently reverse this order of nature, which is that indicated by the history of the general progress of mankind; we would reach art through science; practice through theory. Mere knowledge about a thing is expected to serve instead of nat ural endowments improved by practice; and understanding without power or feeling, the possession of both. Thus we educate to a hypocritical pretense of both power and feeling; mere actors; to an empty, stupid imitation of real intelligent life. But the real highest aim of instruction should be, strictly intelligent artistic power.

working men can not easily fall into this error, because each of them is commonly trained up by one master to one definite occupation, which is to be his support; but second-rate universally half-informed men are proportionally more frequent among the higher classes.

It is, however, just as great an error, to devote one's self exclusively to one single occupation, neglecting all the other faculties which God has given us. Even if not a jurist, you should understand law enough to be able to sit as a justice of the peace; if no preacher, you should at least be able to conduct divine service in your family; if no landscape gardener, you should be competent to manage your own garden; if no physician, you should be able in case of need to bind up a wound, if no physician is at hand, as the good Samaritan did.

What we require is, thorough preparation for one chosen vocation, without any unnatural self-limitation within it, or such an exclusive devotion as unjustly depresses all the other faculties, and understands nothing, and refuses to understand any thing, of the doings of our neighbor.

This skill in our own vocation and understanding of that of others, is the true means of all friendly and helpful intercourse among men; and enables us much more completely to "love our neighbor as ourselves."

The tendency of the present day is not towards an arbitrary, confused intermingling of employments, but towards such a human, Christian understanding and union of all classes, as this. The sharp distinction between the jurists by profession, and laymen, has disappeared by means of the local courts (Geschwornen gerichte); that between citizens and soldiers, through the militia, &c. The master is still a master, but not through any compulsory power of his guild, but through his own distinguished original powers, preeminently developed by conscientious industry.

UN

XII. EDUCATION OF GIRLS.

[Translated from the German of Karl von Raumer, for the American Journal of Education.]

I. FAMILY LIFE.

We have seen how important Luther considered the influence of home life; and that he considered good family management the basis of a good government of the people and of their true happiness. "Family government," he says, "is the first thing; from which all other governments and authorities take their origin. If this root is not good, neither can the stem be good nor can good fruit follow. Kingdoms are composed of single families. Where father and mother govern ill, and let the children have their own way, there can neither city, market, village, country, principality, kingdom nor empire, be well and peacefully governed. For out of sons are made fathers of families, judges, burgomasters, princes, kings, emperors, preachers, schoolmasters, &c.; and where these are ill trained, there the subjects become as their lord; the members as their head.

"Therefore has God ordained it to be first, as most important, that the family should be well governed. For where the house is well and properly governed, all else is well provided for."

These observations are, after Luther's fashion, extremely simple; and refer us to family life as the source both of the happiness and misery of nations. Is our own father-land to receive a blessing or a curse from this source?

II. USUAL MANAGEMENT OF FAMILY LIFE AND FEMALE EDUCATION.

Pestalozzi has given us, in his "Leonard and Gertrude,” a very beautiful and attractive picture of life in a pious family, without losing sight of reality in exaggeration and romance, or setting up an impossible ideal. Upon comparing his representation, however, with ordinary family life, especially that of our so-called "educated classes," the latter does not commonly in the remotest degree correspond with Pestalozzi's ideal. I speak of "ordinary" family life, for I am far from referring to the frightfully disorderly situation of too many entirely immoral, corrupted and abandoned families. But how many families are considered quite irreproachable, which are governed by