HOW TO TEACH. the word written in the copy book and the date; and a new subject written on the black board. On each succeeding day there should be a similar exercise, and on the last day of the week, all should be reviewed. The topics must be selected with care, and varied to keep up the interest. The different articles of food and dress; the instincts of certain animals; Washington, Franklin, truth, attention, &c. all are well adapted to interest and improve the children. THE ADVANTAGES OF THIS EXERCISE. It redeems a sixth part of the school time, the last half hour,-which in a great majority of our schools, is almost lost,-making it the most useful and interesting portion of the day. It awakens the interest of the children in the objects about them, teaching them to observe closely, and question freely of their properties and uses; while every advance in knowledge, opens new sources of thought. It awakens the interest of the parents. The child's questions at home, will compel the parent to recall his own knowledge, and the book will be resorted to, to solve the difficulty. Thus an interest in reading is promoted, and the District School Libraries are made useful. It compels the teacher to improve himself; for he must prepare for these exercises; it is not all laid down in a book, with a key to make it easy; it must, much of it, come out of the head, and unless preparation is made, the questions of the chil dren will soon sound the shallows of the teacher's ignorance. A good teacher will not like it the less, that it imposes the task of self improvement, and since our District Libraries furnish the means, wherever there is zeal and fidelity, there will be no difficulty in preparing for this exercise. And what we deem most important, it will force the school out of the deep rut of routine, in which it has been dragging along for so many years, and by making one change for the better, make other reforms easy. At the examination, and no school should ever close without an examination, the copy books containing the lists of topics should be handed to the visitors, with the request that they will question the children. We have examined a school where the topics of seventy conversations were thus entered, and we have seldom witnessed so much delight as beamed in the faces of every parent present. They felt that their children had learned something. STATE CERTIFICATES OF QUALIFICATION, as teachers of common schools, under the 10th section of the late school act, have been granted to the following individuals: William W. Foster, of Cortland. Albany, July 15, 1843. FRANCIS DWIGHT, ESQ. Dear Sir: The objects of education are, to illustrate the duties of life, and qualify for their performance; and to be truly valuable, it must embrace all the necessary branches, and enter in this communication, to specify the branches thoroughly into each of them. I do not design which a finished education should include; I shall rather confine myself to what constitutes a thorough and proper acquaintance with any of them, and the difficulties in the way of their acquisition, in a proper and adequate degree, in our common schools. It is a sage and familiar aphorism, that, "what is worth doing at all, is worth doing well." By parity of reason, what is worth learning at all, is worth learning well. And every branch of knowledge, whether in a comworthless-not to say dangerous-in proportion mon or liberal education, is either valuable or as it is thoroughly or imperfectly understood. The reader, however excellent and well-cultivated may be his voice-however clear and distinct his articulation-however just and proper his emphasis-however manly and appropriate his tones, if he but fail in propriety of accentu ation, can never be heard with pleasure, and will often fail to give the sense of his author. In spelling, if the simple and obvious fact be overlooked, of the tendency of a, o, and i, in final unaccented syllables, to slide into the sound of short u; and of e, in the same situation, to acquire the short sound of u or i; though every other principle of our extremely irregular, perplexing and disgraceful orthography, be completely mastered, scarcely can a single line be written, without giving frequent proofs of ignorance. And to take an illustration from grammar, who, however perfect in other respects his grammatical knowledge may be, if he has failed unite to change the present tense of verbs gento learn, that contingency and futurity must erally, and the present and imperfect of to be, from the indicative to the subjunctive form, can write even a familiar letter, without offering violence to the "jus et norma loquendi" of his vernacular tongue? Now, what is true in relation to these branches, is equally true of all others; this needs no proof. Few, comparatively, of the young misses of our land, on finishing their last term at school, can tell how much a dress would cost at a given sum a yard. And quite as few of the young men of our country can tell the value of thirty bushels of wheat, at ten shillings and three-fifths a bushel. Why is this so? Not, certainly, because there has been no school in their districts a sufficient length of time; nor then is the reason? Simply this. The course because they are incapable of learning. What and manner of instruction in most of our common schools, is radically defective and inadequate. It is not thorough. In every philosophical plan of study, is there a commencement, a progress, and a completoin; but to the blundering methods of teaching in most of our schools, there is neither beginning, middle nor end. All is anarchy and confusion, and the effect of such a course upon the pupils, is, to confirm them in And not more difficult will be the perception, that almost every other rule in arithmetic, is only a modification of this.-(To be continued.) I am, dear sir, yours respectfully, JOHN REYNOLDS. GERMAN SCHOOLS. ignorance. Let me illustrate the subject. Farmer Slack has a garden, which, with proper culture, might become an Eden of beauty and fertility. But he does not know what proper cultivation is; he does every thing in the wrong time, and then only half does it. He half fences it-half ploughs it-half seeds it-half weeds it -half watches it, and after all this half-way work obtains not a quarter of a crop; though We extract from a paper in the first volume he has spent more time and labor on it than of Essays on Education, published by the Cenwould have been necessary with proper appli- tral Society of England, the following passages cation, to furnish vegetables for half the town. in reference to the kinds of instruction adopted Very like this garden and gardener are many, in the German Schools. They will be found very many of those fields of mental and moral full of valuable suggestions. The schools of improvement, upon which the benefactions of Germany have gone through several stages, and the state are literally squandered. What though have arrived, in some parts of the country, at a the sunbeams and showers of heaven fall upon state which we may hope our own will hereaf the garden, and warm and fertilize its soil? ter reach. Before 1770, they were in as low a The hand of the cultivator is not guided by sci- condition as any now amongst ours, and for ence and philosophy, and those gifts of Provi- similar reasons. Any person was deemed com. dence might as well have fallen upon a rock. petent to give instruction; and it was not unAnd what though the fostering care of our lib- common for persons, who had failed in other eral and enlightened legislature, is in every pursuits, to have recourse to teaching as a last school house in the state, if the districts will desperate resort. About the beginning of the not lend their co-operation? All depends upon present century, a great change took place. the people the sovereign people. They can Teaching was admitted to be an art requiring scout ignorance from our borders, and breathe as much preparation as any other, and in which the breath of life into science, morality, and im- no one could hope to excel who had not learned provement; and when they will it, it will be done. its principles from some one competent to teach, I take no pleasure in writing such hard things or from long experience and practice. Schools against our schools. I state them because they for teachers were established, and the occupaare facts; and because I desire, by arousing the tion became a profession. Modes of instruction people to the reality of their existence, to work came to be considered quite as important as the their extinction; and thus open the way for such branches taught, and were gradually improved. improvements in the methods of instruction as are They are not yet considered as brought to perindicated by the spirit of the age, and the accu- fection, but are the objects of special attention, mulating results of philosophy and experience. particularly at the Normal Schools. In these, inductive, systematic, thorough-going, demonstrative instruction, is a prominent feature. Applied to arithmetic, they require the learner, in the language of an eminent master of that science-to "understand every thing as he goes along." The first principles should be thoroughly understood in the first place, and their application afterwards. I shall not here point out any particular method of attaining these ends, for no two accomplished teachers would probably agree upon any one, to the exclusion of all others, nor applying the same to different minds, or the same mind under different circumstances. That teacher who is not acquainted with the philosophy of mind, and cannot modify the general methods of instruction to the complexional varieties of intellectual character, has mistaken his calling. The doctrine that I wish to lay down here, is, that numeration should be accurately, thoroughly and familiarly understood by the pupil, before he advances to addition, and each of the fundmental rules, before he proceeds to the next; that he "Teaching, in its common signification, and should know the nature of simple numbers, be- instructing, are by no means synonymous; as fore he proceeds to compound or denominate the former generally implies only the imparting ones, and how multiplication and division are of some kind of knowledge, and the impressing concise methods of performing a series of addi.it strongly on the memory of the student. But tions and subtractions; that he learn the properties of fractions, vulgar and decimal, and perceive the reason for all the steps in reduction, before he enters upon the rule of three. In learning this rule, his first acquisition should be, an accurate acquaintance with the doctrine of proportion. From this, the transition will be easy and natural, to a clear comprehension of all the principles of the rule in question. "The first leading principle, which may be considered as including all the others, is, that instruction is not the same thing with stuffing the memory of children with a great number of facts and notions. It is rather to be directed to the other mental powers, which are to be rous. ed. developed, exercised, and cultivated. It farther has to refine and moderate the passions, to cultivate the religious and moral feelings, and to direct the mental activity to good purposes. It is evident that this object cannot be attained by pursuing one general plan of instruction, and that the individual qualities of every child must not be lost sight of. Instruction, therefore, ceases to be a handicraft, to be exercised ac cording to a few simple rules, in a uniform manner; it becomes an art; and, as the intimate combination of extensive knowledge, sound sense, and a profound acquaintance with hu man nature, is required. for the purpose of exercising it with good success, it may with truth be called a very difficult art. instructing means to help the student in acquiring or appropriating to himself any kind of knowledge, or in forming the habit of performing certain tasks with facility. This cannot be effected without a steady activity of the mental powers on the side of the student; and, where this activity is not excited and kept up, the desired end cannot be attained. In endeav oring to create this activity, the art of the teach er displays itself most conspicuously. His business is not to save to the students all trouble and labor by explaining everything to them; but he must have sufficient sagacity to distinguish where, and how far, the knowledge and mental powers of the child alone are sufficient for the performance of the task, and where, and how far, his own interference is required. A teacher who, following up this idea, has acquired by experience a certain tact in thus dealing with the children under his care, may be certain that he will succeed in exciting and maintaining their attention, and in implanting in their minds a thirst for knowledge and the habit of mental activity. "Explanations on the side of the teacher, and performances on the side of the children, will therefore follow one another alternately. In giving the children tasks to perform, or problems to solve, the sound sense and experience of the teacher are put to the test. They must be neither too easy nor too difficult. In the first case, the attention of the child slackens, and relapses into inactivity; in the second, it makes perhaps repeated efforts, but finding them useless, it becomes discouraged and remiss in its work. If either of these cases happen repeatedly, the mind of the child gets into the habit of working, at the best, only by starts; and, if the whole course of teaching consists of such mistakes on the part of the teacher, there will be a danger of all mental energy being drowned by his want of capacity for the due performance of the duties of his office." The following extract gives an outline of a subject of the greatest importance in a system of instruction, and one in which, as yet, scarcely any progress has been made in the Common Schools of this country. We are confident that this is laying the foundation where it should be laid. The method of instruction here pointed out consists in making the child familiar with the objects about him, their properties, positions, and relations, and, by means of these, teaching the words by which those objects, properties, and relations are expressed. This is the natural method, and the true one. Language, thus taught, is significant and intelligible. Words stand as the representatives of real objects, and of ideas already comprehended. The child is made to observe, to compare, to reason, to think, to conclude; and he uses language to express his observations, comparisons, reasonings, thoughts, and conclusions. By the common processes of instruction, words are too commonly learned without things or ideas. We introduce this account here, therefore, and we point to it, and declare, distinctly and emphatically-Here is an indication of one great reform to be made in teaching. KNOWLEDGE OF THE EXTERNAL WORLD. "Like every other branch of instruction, it begins with impressions on the senses. A child must first have acquired an idea of the objects constituting the world about him, before he can bring them into connection with one another. Every child brings a smaller or greater number of more or less correct impressions to the school. The teacher must be attentive to increase their number, but he must also show his good sense in choosing those that are most important and most essential for the progress of education. These preparatory exercises may be made in the fields, or in the school. In summer, the teacher takes the children to the fields, and directs their attention to every object that occurs to their eyes. Distances of the road are estimated, and then measured by paces; flowers are looked at, and their single parts examined; stones are picked up; and butterflies, chafers, and worms, are not permitted to escape attention. Their observation is directed to hills and valleys, rivulets and brooks, ponds and ditches, gardens and meadows, fields and woods. But it is not the eye alone which is to be exercised; the ear also must be learning to discriminate, and every sound must be followed up for the purpose discovering whence it proceeds. The other senses, also, are sometimes used, especially in the examination of plants and flowers. The teacher must be assiduous to bring a great number of objects before the children, and to impress on them as perfect a notion as possible. The more intimately the child becomes acquainted with the objects of the creation, the more he will love them, and the deeper will be the impression which they make upon his mind. The garden of the teacher, also, is used to increase their knowledge of several plants and trees. "The preparatory course varies in the winter. Then, collections of natural objects are placed before the children,-for instance, of different kinds of wood, of roots, seeds, mosses, stones, &c. The most common objects are here also the best. When, in this way, the children have become acquainted with a great number of objects, the teacher puts several of them together, and causes his pupils to compare them, to arrange them according to their similarity. He frequently orders the children to describe the objects which they have seen, either by words or in writing, because, in this way their ideas increase in clearness and accuracy. But this is only done towards the termination of the preparatory course; the senses are, as it were, to be first satisfied, before reason can begin to ope rate with effect. When this has taken place, a few objects subjected to the senses are able to rouse a great number of ideas and observations, because reason then suggests them in crowds. "The teacher must endeavor to induce the children to arrange all these things in a certain order, as being of great importance, both for the increase of knowledge and the business of life. He must also insist on correct language, and a strict connection in the children's ideas. But, in the beginning, he must be somewhat indulgent respecting the latter point, that the conception may not be drowned in the word."-— [Annals, p. 76. ` HOW THE CORAL REEFS ARE CONVERTED INTO ISLANDS. The reefs, which just raise themselves above the level of the sea, are usually of a circular or oval form, and surrounded by a deep and often unfathomable ocean. In the centre of each there is usually a comparatively shallow lagoon, where there is still water, and where the smaller and more delicate kind of zoophytes find a tranquil abode, while the more strong species live on the exterior margin of the isle, where a great surf usually breaks. When the reef, says M. Chamisso, a naturalist who accompanied Kotzebue, is of such a height that it remains almost dry at low water, the corals leave off building. A continuous mass of solid stone is seen, composed of the shells of molluscs and echini, with their broken-off prickles and frag. ments of coral, united by a cement of calcareous sand, produced by the pulverization of shells. Fragments of coral limestone are thrown up by the waves, until the ridge becomes so high that it is covered only during some seasons of the year by the high tides. The heat of the sun often penetrates the mass of stone when it is dry, so that it splits in many places. The force of the waves is thereby enabled to separate and lift blocks of coral, frequently six feet long and three or four in thickness, and throw them upon the reef. "After this the calcareous sand lies undisturbed, and offers to the seeds of trees and plants cast upon it by the waves, a soil, upon which they rapidly grow, to over. shadow its dazzling white surface. Entire trunks of trees, which are carried by the rivers from other countries and islands, find here, at length, a resting place after their long wanderings; with these come small animals, such as lizards and insects, as the first inhabitants. Even before the trees form a wood, the seabirds nestle here; strayed land-birds take refuge in the bushes; and, at a much later period, when the work has been long since completed, man appears, and builds his hut on the fruitful soil."-Kotzebue's Voyages, as quoted by Lyell. Youth's Miscellany. DIVISIONS OF TIME. D. I should like to know something of the divisions of time. You know when I was so very sorry that our beautiful flowers were all withered and dead, you told me that in another year, the plants would again put forth leaves and blossoms. I shall be very glad when another year comes, that I may again gather flowers to ornament our parlor; but I wish to know what is a year? M. This morning you rose at six, and it is now six in the evening; tell me how many hours have passed since you rose from bed? D. Twelve. M. Well, twelve hours more must pass before the sun will again rouse you from your slumbers; add, then, these twelve to the twelve of to-day, and what will be the number? D. Twenty-four. M. Day and night, taken together, make a solar day, or the space from one sun-rising to another; or it is that portion of time during which the earth makes one revolution round its axis. Most Europeans begin their day and hours at midnight. The Italians, however, begin their day at sunset, from which to the following evening they reckon twenty-four hours. The Turks begin their day at a quarter of an hour after sun-set. Most of the Italian clocks strike twenty-four hours; for instance, an hour past twelve they strike thirteen, instead of one, as do our clocks, and so on to twenty-four. In numbering time, we say, twenty-four hours make one day; seven days one week; four weeks one month; twelve months, or three hundred and sixty-five days six hours, one year. D. Who named the days? M. They are derived from certain Saxon objects of worship, as Sunday from the Sun; Monday from the Moon; Tuisco, the same with the Roman Mars, gave name to Tuesday; Wednesday from Woden, their god of battle; Thursday from Furanes, the same with the Danish Thor, the god of winds and weather; Friday from Friga, otherwise called Venus, who was some. times worshiped as the goddess of peace and plenty; Saturday, either from Seator, the god of freedom, or from the planet Saturn. D. I will write these names down, that I may not forget them. Will you now be so kind as to tell me from what the months are called? M. The Romans named nearly all the months from some of their divinities and emperors, viz: January from Janus, who was represented with two faces, one looking towards the new year, the other towards the old. February named by Romulus, from Februa, the mother of Mars. March from Mars, the god of war; April from the Latin word Aperio, signifying to open the year or blossom; May from Maia, the mother of Mercury; June from Juno, the wife of Jupiter; July was named by Mark Anthony, in honor of Julius Cæsar, a celebrated Roman; August from Augustus Cæsar, also a Roman Emperor; September from Septem, the seventh month of the Roman year; October from Octo, the eighth month; November from Novem, the ninth month; December from Decem, the tenth month of the Roman year. D. I always thought till now, that December was the twelfth month of the year. M. It is, according to our reckoning; but the Romans began to count their year from March, as also did many other ancient nations; and this seems to be the most natural arrangement, as it is in Spring vegetation commences. D. Did the Romans call the days of the week by the same names as those by which we distinguish ours? M. No. They were called from the planets: as Dies Solis, of the Sun; Luna, Moon; Martis, Mars; Mercurii, Mercury; Jovis, Jupiter; Veneris, Venus; and Saturni, Saturn. D. I very well know there are in the year, or in twelve months, four seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter; but why was the year so divided? M. For convenience in reckoning; it is likely the ancients, observing that the days were not all of a length, together with all the variations from heat to cold, were led to divide the year thus into four seasons. The changes of the moon were regular, and obvious to every eye, and consequently formed another division of the year into moons or months. D. How did they find out the hours? M. It is likely various devices were adopted; but at first it was found necessary to divide the days from one sun-rising to the next. Ď. And how did they measure time? M. The Romans, one hundred and fifty years before Christ was born, measured time by means of water; the same quantity pouring from one vessel to another, as sand runs through an hour glass, which was a later invention. They also filled tall narrow-necked vials with water, on the top of which floated a cork; the water ran out very slowly, through small holes in the bottom of these vials, and, as it lessened, the cork descended, and showed by marks on the outside how many hours had passed since it began to run. At length sun-dials came into use. The first, of which we have any notice in the History of Rome, was that erected by Papirius Cursor; we learn from Scripture, however, that dials were in use among the Jews, as early, if not earlier, than the reign of Ahaz. D. When were clocks invented? M. Clocks and watches are of still more re. cent date; great skill in mechanics was requisite to bring them to their present degree of perfection. A striking clock was unknown till the end of the twelfth century; and the first set up in England was at Westminster, in 1238. It is said watches were first made in the city of Nuremburg. D. How are they set in motion? M. Watches move by an elastic steel spring, which is coiled up in the case, and, seeking to uncoil itself, gives motion to a wheel which turns all the others. Clocks are moved by a weight which turns a cylinder, and thus gives motion to the wheels. D. Mother, I do not exactly know what you mean, when you say in the twelfth century, and 1288. M. That is, I suppose, you do not know what a century is? D. Not certainly. M. A century is a hundred years. Eighteen centuries, and more than one-fourth of the nineteenth, have passed since the birth of Jesus Christ. Our years are reckoned from his birth; thus, it was not till 1288 years after the coming of Christ, that striking clocks were invented. POWER OF THE VOICE OVER CHILDREN. ed with a pleasing utterance. What is it which lulls the infant to repose? It is no array of mere words. There is no charm to the untaught one in letters, syllables, and sentences. It is the sound which strikes the little ear, that soothes and composes it to sleep. A few notes, however unskilfully arranged, if uttered in a soft tone, are found to possess a magic influence. Think we that this influence is confined to the cradle? No, it is diffused over every age, and ceases not while the child remains under the paternal roof. Is the boy growing rude in manner and boisterous in speech? I know of no instrument so sure to control these tendencies as the gentle tones of a mother. She who speaks to her son harshly, does but give to his conduct the sanction of her own example. She pours oil on the already raging flame. In the pressure of duty, we are liable to utter ourselves hastily to our children. Perhaps a threat is expressed in a loud and irritating tone. Instead of allaying the passions of the child, it serves directly to increase them. Every fretful expression awakens in him the same spirit which produced it. A bloody murder, father. A bloody murder! Well, then, once upon a time, some men, dressed all alikeC. With black crapes over their faces? F. No, they had steel caps on. Having crossed a heath, they wound cautiously along the skirts of a deep forest C. They were ill looking fellows, I dare say. F. I cannot say so; on the contrary, they were tall personable men-leaving on their right hand an old ruined tower on the hill It is usual to attempt the management of children either by corporal punishment, or by rewards addressed to the senses, or by words alone. There is one other means of government, the power and importance of which are seldom regarded. I refer to the human voice. A blow may be inflicted on a child accompanied by words so uttered, as to counteract entirely F. No, really, on a fine balmy summer's its intended effect. Or, the parent may use morning-and they moved forward, one behind language in a correction of her child, not objec-anothertionable in itself, yet spoken in a tone which more than defeats its influence. We are by no means aware of the power of voice in swaying the feelings of the soul. The anecdote of the good lady in regard to her minister's sermons is to the point. She heard a discourse from him which pleased her exceed. ingly. She expressed to a friend the hope that he would preach it again. "Perhaps." said her friend in reply, "he may print it." "Ah," said she; "he could not print that holy tone." There is a tone in the pulpit, which, false as is the taste from which it proceeds, does indeed work wonders. So is there a tone in our intercourse with children which may be among the most efficient aids in their right education. Let any one endeavor to recall the image of a fond mother long since at rest in heaven. Her sweet smile and ever clear countenance are brought vividly to recollection. So also is her voice; and blessed is that parent who is endow. C. At midnight, just as the clock struck 12, was it not, father? C. As still as death, creeping along under the hedges? F. On the contrary, they walked remarkably upright; and so far from endeavoring to be hushed and still, they made a loud noise as they came along, with several sorts of instruments. C. But, father, they would be found out immediately. F. They did not seem to wish to conceal themselves; on the contrary, they seemed to glory in what they were about. They moved forward to a large plain, where stood a neat, pretty village, which they set on fire C. Set a village on fire! wicked wretches! F. And while it was burning, they murdered twenty thousand men! C. Oh fie father; you do not intend that I should believe this! I thought all along you were making up a tale, as you often do; but you shall not catch me this time. What! they lay still, I suppose, and let these fellows cut their throats! |