understand shoulder-knots or tags; but the Old Red Book of Chatelet, a hundred years later, increases this number to twenty-six-a remarkable rise in a detail of costume, which must have been so limited. A like discrepancy is shown in the makers of aumoniers, or ecclesiastical charity-bags, who are put down as 3 in the census of 1300, but of whom 124 are mentioned as plying their trades at the end of the century. Embroiderers, in like manner, mounted up from 23 to 129 in 1319. The hatters, or head-dress makers, were rather numerous, and included felt hatters, pearl head-dress makers and chapeliers de soie, who wove the silk veils known as couvre-chefs (kerchiefs?). There were three other corporations engaged in working head-dresses, not mentioned in the census of 1300-viz., in flowers, peacock feathers, and sea-birds' feathers. Besides these, there were hoodmakers, chauciers, or sock makers, coute-pointiers or makers of coverlets, and crepinières, who appear to have been workers in a kind of trimming. Quicherat, in his History of Costume, tells us that the crepinières made a sort of head-dress in silk and thread, while other branches of this trade furnished fringes for pillow-cases and the decorations of altars. The ribbon makers (dorelotiers), the clothsellers, and the mercers, furnished a strong contingent to the commercial ranks, and their articles of shopkeeping contributed one of the greatest attractions to the visitors to Paris, who, then as now, came from all quarters of the globe.

Et reviennent de toz pais

Les bons marcheans a Paris
Por la mercerie achater.

Jean Jandun, who wrote the Eloge de Paris, in 1323, gives a most graphic description of the display of goods in the shape of clothes, fans, silks and stuffs, which were exposed for sale on the ground floor of the shops, while the story above was devoted to the lighter object de luxe, such as toilet details, ivory pins, head-gear, girdles, gloves, &c. That the trade was a lucrative one, is evident from the fact, that the heaviest assessment was made on this class of shop, varying from 30 to 150 livres. It is worth while noticing, that though makers of woollen, silk, and lace goods were somewhat numerous, those of linen were very few, only eight in number,

which seems to imply that the linen trade was comparatively little known in those days, and that the material was not much used. Allusion has already been made to the hatters; but we must not omit to mention the morteliers (from whom perhaps our slang university term of "mortar-boards" has been derived), a rather powerful and important craft, who gave their name to the Rue de Mortellerie. There were also no less than five makers of hats from peacocks' feathers. The furriers, of whom there were 350, formed one of the most powerful trades-gilds of the time; and we also find, that the old clothes men flourished at that period, under the significant title of rafreschisseeurs, or renovators of old garments. Tailors, who numbered 160, occupied an important position in the clothing trades, although the profession was very much divided into specialities, there being, besides tailors proper, corporations of doublet makers, braces makers, shoulder-knot makers, &c. The tailors were at that time under several peculiar rules and laws. The customer always found the cloth, and the tailor's province was merely to cut the garment; and if he did not do this properly, he was liable to a fine from his gild and the cost of the damage done to the cloth. A paper pattern was first of all taken of the intended suit, and this pattern was kept by the corporation as evidence in case of any complaint, either of misfit, or of not using up all the cloth, which was considered a point of great heinousness. This, however, was not limited to France, for we find the same custom prevalent also in England in early days, as shown by the following:

Memorandum: That John Rowter received iiii yerdes of brod cloth blew to make Master Robert Rydon a gownne, upoun the wheeche, the sayde Master Robert complayned of lacking of his clothe. And ther wasse dewly proved iii quarteris of brod clothe convayed in pieces, as hit apereth by patrons of blacke paper in our comen kofer of record, at any tyme redy to shew.

In royal establishments, and great houses generally, the tailor was a regular servant, receiving wages and wearing a livery; and indeed, in the king's palace was a complete tailor's shop, just as the ladies of the households kept their dressmakers and seamstresses. Notwithstanding the rather strict division of labour amongst the different

HE favourable reception that has been given to my last communication, comparing, or rather contrasting, the views of the scholar who considers that learning is all-in-all, and the practical observer, who considers that the existing remains of the buildings of the period are better evidence of the facts than anything that has been written, or that can be written, about them, has led me to offer a continuation of it. In the case of the Forum, these remains had been entirely

This corporation must have very largely increased afterwards, for it is stated that in the procession before Philip the Bold, when he translated the bones of St. Louis, over 300 fullers ook part.

That is, chaplets of coral and shells for telling one's beads.

buried for centuries, and have only been brought to light by the enormous excavations of the last few years. This is equally the case, or more so, in the Colosseum. No disrespect to Mr. Burn is intended by making use of the abridgment of his great work as an embodiment of the scholar's view-generally entertained by German scholars, followed too blindly by the English, who will not take the trouble of going to Rome to use their own eyes, or even looking at any photographs of the objects brought to light by the recent excavations; and although both Pope Pius IX., with Cardinal Antonelli, and, ten years afterwards, King Humbert, with the Italian Government, have called me a benefactor of Rome by "demonstrating the truth of the early history which had been considered as fabulous for the last half century;" and this latter, as the Italian ambassador was directed to say, was "after consideration and inquiry." Still scholars are so blindly prejudiced that they cannot see the truth when plainly put before them. I now proceed to show the same contrast in the COLOSSEUM (I prefer to take this form to the one used by Mr. Burn of Coliseum), and I am giving engravings from photographs as my witnesses.

The entablature of the first storey is surmounted by an attica, with projections corresponding to the columns below. Above these stand the arches of the second storey, between which half-columns of the Ionic order are placed. The details of the architecture here are in a very meagre style, for the spiral lines on the volutes are omitted, and also the usual toothed ornaments of the entablature. The same remark applies to the third storey, the half-columns of which have Corinthian capitals, with the acanthus foliage very roughly worked. The fourth storey has no arches, but consists of a wall, pierced with larger and smaller square windows placed alternately, and is decorated with pilasters of the Composite order. Between each pair of pilasters three consoles project from the wall, and above these are corresponding niches in the entablature. The purpose of these was to support the masts upon which the awnings were stretched. The second and third of the principal concentric walls contain arches corresponding to those in the outer wall. Corridors run between these concentric walls, and on the first and second floors of the outer ring, and the first floor of the inner ring, these circles afford a completely unobstructed passage all round. The other corridors are blocked up in parts by various staircases leading to the upper rows of seats.-BURN, p. 65.

There is plain proof of other and later additions to the upper part of the amphitheatre. The highest gallery of all, for the women, was originally of

are intended for the dens of the wild beasts in the area, and in front of them some sort of performance is going on. Such rough kinds of carving or shallow incisions, called graffiti, usually made on the plastercoating of walls, have frequently occurred in the ruins of Rome, and many of them have been transferred to museums. The spectators were protected from the heat of the sun by an awning, Velarium, which was suspended by cords from the tops of masts. For supporting these masts, exposed to a strain necessarily very great, the contrivances were of an ingenious kind, and are still distinctly visible where the upper storey remains perfect. On the exterior wall, ten feet below the summit, there is a row of corbels projecting for the feet of the masts to rest upon, and holes are left in the cornice above through which the body of the masts passed; and on the inner side of the uppermost wall are other corbels, to which were lashed the stays for keeping them upright. From each mast-head a rope was stretched, sloping down inwards towards the arena, and upon these ropes the sections of the velarium were spread, running upon rings. At the bottom of the galleries next the podium are similar contrivances, evidently for supporting standing poles. The awning was worked by a staff of seamen, who were detached for this purpose from the fleet stationed off Misenum, in the Bay of Naples, and hence the quarters provided for them within the walls were called Castra Misenatium. In one feature, however, the Roman amphitheatre differed from all the rest, namely, in having double corridors all round the galleries; the absence of this outer passage made a different adaptation of the stairs to the vomitoria necessary between this and the other amphitheatres, where the spectators went out straight through each archway.-PARKER, pp. 158-160.

The complete excavation made down to the pavement of the substructures reveals modes of building in very different styles, and plainly shows that the whole mass cannot be attributed to one date or a few years. It also enables us to understand the nature of the stagna, the relation of the arena to them, and the provisions for introducing and exhibiting wild beasts (p. 152).

First, then, it is seen, by the removal of earth filling the interior of the Colosseum to the depth of twenty-one feet, that the basement, containing complicated arrangements for the various uses of the theatre, is to a great extent composed of large blocks of tufa, which are evidently not of imperial date. There are plenty of instances of the adaptation of that material for foundations, when old sites were built over again, but not any of an original work reared by an emperor upon a new basement of tufa. The solution of this difficulty is most probably to be found, as has been proposed, in the conclusion that a previous structure of a similar kind existed on this site before the time of Vespasian or even of Nero. Pliny describes the theatre of M. Æmilius Scaurus, the step-son of Sylla, as the greatest work ever made by human hands, capable of containing eighty thousand people. The same number is recorded for the Flavian amphitheatre, and this is the only theatre in the

world that would hold that number. Scaurus was curule ædile B.C. 58. The earliest parts of the strucVOL. V.

ture being of tufa, the brickwork of Nero succeeded to them when the design of making his naumachia and arena was carried out. Around the central space occupied by them, the first galleries for spectators were commenced: and of that finest kind of brickwork which distinguishes the time of Nero; but the exterior was not finished in any part. That the stone galleries and corridors were not of the original construction is shown by there being no bond between them and the older brickwork; there is a straight and wide vertical joint where the two materials come together, which is conclusive as to the outer mass having been subsequently built on to the upper portion. The three styles sufficiently indicate three periods of construction of tufa, brick, and travertine.

When the French occupied Rome, and it was incorporated into their empire in the four years preceding the battle of Waterloo, the French Government carried out considerable excavations in the arena of the Coliseum; and, besides clearing the podium and the chambers annexed to it, they opened the cryptoporticus which runs underground towards the Coelian Hill, and also discovered the passages beneath the arena, which have been now excavated again. A great controversy was raised at that time as to the real level of the original arena between several of the archæological professors and antiquarians of Rome. The same controversy has now been again revived, and the same questions as to the probable date of the underground constructions have been again raised, but with as little hope as ever of arriving at a satisfactory solution. The truth seems to be that, as in most amphitheatres, these hypogea were constructed at the very first erection of the Coliseum, but have been altered, neglected, filled up, and again cleared out many times during the eventful history of the building, and that it has now become impossible to trace the various stages of such destructions and restorations. As often as the drains which were intended to carry off the water became choked, and failed to act, these lower chambers and passages were filled with water and rendered useless. -BURN, p. 68.

The excavations of 1810-14 do not seem to have been carried deep enough to show the floor of the hypogæa; and, among the principal new objects of antiquarian interest discovered by the recent operations, have been some large blocks of travertine sunk in the floor of the passages, and pierced in their centre with large round holes. These holes have evidently been the sockets into which upright posts of some kind were fixed. In some of these sockets a metal lining still remains, and in one of them the remains of a wooden post are said to have been found.-BURN, p. 69.

The original drawings of the French engineers of their excavations in the Colosseum, with their account of them, have long been preserved in the British Museum, where I saw them some years since. They state, distinctly, that they were stopped by water. For the excavations made at my request by Signor Rosa, for the Italian Government, this

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