second book of the Republic, that "our good things are much fewer in number than our evil things."

It should be remarked, however, that Plato's evil principle differed, in some most important respects, from the evil spirit made known to us in the Bible. The former, although recognised by him as a yvx, or soul, was not so much a moral or spiritual, as a physical power. It was the dark, foolish, disorderly, intractable, chaotic, evil spirit of matter (if we may use so paradoxical a term), on which the Good God was ever exerting an influence, in bringing it from chaos into harmony, although that influence was ever resisted, and sometimes exercised with great difficulty. It is to this he alludes in the Timæus, although in this latter work we find no trace of that animation and personality which is assigned to the evil principle in the tenth of The Laws. In the Timæus, too, although possessed of motion and a sort of blind activity, it is a hinderance, or an obstacle, rather than an enemy: Βουληθεὶς γὰρ ὁ θεὸς ἀγαθὰ μὲν πάντα, φλαῦρον δὲ μηδὲν εἶναι, οὕτω δὴ πᾶν ὅσον ἦν ὁρα τὸν παραλαβὼν οὐχ ἡσυχίαν ἄγον, ἀλλὰ κινούμενον* πλημ μελῶς καὶ ἀτάκτως, κατὰ δύναμιν εἰς τάξιν αὐτὸ ἤγαγεν ἐκ τῆς ἀταξίας. Θέμις γὰρ οὔτ ̓ ἦν οὔτ ̓ ἔστι ΤΩΙ ΑΡΙΣΤΩΙ δρᾷν ἄλλο πλὴν τὸ ΚΑΛΛΙΣΤΟΝ- For God, wish. ing that all things should be good, and that there should be

* On this and some few similar expressions in the Timæus has been grounded the argument for the common position, that Plato held to the eternity of matter, and that it possessed a principle of its own, independent of the creating and constantly energizing power of the Deity. Should it be admitted that our philosopher is justly chargeable with inconsistency, still we contend that the positions assumed in the Laws in respect to the inertness of matter, and the superior antiquity of soul, should have the greater weight, inasmuch as the extracts from the Timæus are merely incidental declarations, whereas the latter form the very heart and substance of one of his most studied and elaborately-prepared arguments. See farther, on this subject, Note L., On the Ancient Doctrine, De Nihilo Nihil fit.

nothing bad, thus taking in hand the visible (or material), never at rest, but ever moving about in a strange and disor. derly manner, as far as he could reduced it from disorder to order. For it is not permitted (où déus, it is morally impossible) for the Best Being to do anything else than the best." Timaus, 30, A. So, also, in that trinity about which so much has been said, and which but faintly appears in any parts of his authentic dialogues, the vx, or third hypostasis, seems to be rather a benign physical influence, than to make any approach to that renovating moral power which is revealed in the Scriptures. If we should dare to institute any comparison, we would say that it has more resemblance to the of Genesis, i., 2, and Psalms, civ., 30, than to the πνεйμа of Рaul and John.

The truth is, that, on this great and difficult subject of the existence and origin of evil, the mind of Plato seems to have wavered, and to have had different opinions at different times. Here he very briefly, yet very distinctly, avows his belief in a personal evil soul. In the Republic he leaves it as a matter of inference, contenting himself with the declaration, that God is the author of good, and of good only, while, at the same time, he asserts that the evil predominates, at least in the present state. In the Timæus, it is a lower order of being, the dark and chaotic principle of mat-. ter, possessing something of a positive character, yet still without anything psychical or animate in its nature. In the Politicus, or Statesman, there is a view, in some of its features, allied to this, yet capable of being resolved into what modern theologians would call a mere permission of evil, as a negative principle, deriving its power from occasional withdrawals of the Divine presence and superintendence. This we gather from that most singular myth, in which he represents the universe as subject to alternate revolutions of immense length, during one of which good and perfection predominate, while, in the other, although the good, for a

long time, exerts an influence, through habit, even after the withdrawal of the Divine Presence, yet evil and disorder, being introduced by degrees, increase more and more, until, finally, Old Chaos comes again, and total destruction would ensue, did not God once more resume the long-abandoned helm. It is a portion of Plato's works on which but little attention has been bestowed, and yet, in consequence of its always having seemed to us to possess a deep theological interest, we give the passage to our readers at some length, and in a very free version: "God himself, at one time, guides this universe (vμπodnуei), and turns it round. Again, he abandons it to itself, when the periods of its destined times have received their full complement; when, being animate, and having had wisdom implanted in it from him who harmonized it at the beginning, it commences of its own accord to move in a contrary direction; and this tendency to a retrograde motion arises from an innate necessity of its nature. For to be ever in the same relations (KaTà TaνTà), and uniform, and the same, pertains alone to those things which are most divine; but the nature of matter has no share in this dignity. What we name, therefore, the heavens or the universe (ovpavòv kaì kóoμov), hath partaken of many blessed things or qualities from him who generated it; still, it has communion with matter, and, on this account, it is impossible that it should be altogether exempt from change, although, as far as it is capable, it moves on in one regular course, in the same and according to the same relations. It is in this way that it gets this property of unrolling, or rolling back, consisting, at first, in the slightest conceivable change or parallax of its previous motion. For anything always to turn itself is impossible, except for Him who is the supreme controller of all moving things; but for this Being to act in a changeable manner, or to turn things, now in this direction, and now in the contrary, is impossible (où déμuç, is morally impossible). For

all these reasons must we say, that the world neither turns itself forever, nor that it is forever turned by God in contrary circuits. Neither must we suppose that two Gods* with opposing purposes conduct its revolutions (μήτ' αὐτὸν στρέφειν ἑαυτὸν ἀεί, μήτ' αὖ ὅλον ὑπὸ θεοῦ στρέφεσθαι ἀεὶ διττὰς καὶ ἐναντίας περιαγωγάς, μήτ' αὖ δύο τινὲ θεὼ φρονοῦντε ἑαυτοῖς ἐναντία στρέφειν αὐτόν), but, as has been said (and which, in fact, is the only supposition left), that, at one time, it is guided by a Divine cause; during which period it receives again the acquired power of life, and an immortality not innate, but imparted to it from the Demiurgus; and then, again, that it goes by itself, being abandoned so long, that even many ten thousand years may be occupied in the revolution." Politicus, 269, P.

The myth then proceeds to describe the alternate periods. The first, or that which is under the direct care of the Deity, is represented as the golden age, during which time the earth produces all things spontaneously, without cultivation, and, in general, the order of all things is from death to life. This was the reign of Saturn. Good was

This is in direct opposition to the doctrine laid down in The Laws, where he maintains that there are at least two souls, one good and the other bad, occupied in the movements of the universe. Here, however, he seems to be very much averse to such an opinion, as inconsistent and unnatural. Some would say that this furnishes conclusive evidence that the one or the other, or both of these dialogues, are spurious. If such an argument could be held legitimate, the conclusion would certainly be against the Politicus, since the doctrine of The Laws was followed by all the subsequent Platonists, and regarded as an undoubted position of their master; but, in truth, instead of invalidating either, it only shows how a great mind wavered on the deepest question in philosophy and theology.

† It might, however, seem, to some, to be rather a specios of inverted death, as during this period the order of all things is so changed, that the old commence a process of return to the vigour of middle age, manhood returns to youth, youth to boyhood, boyhood to infancy, infancy to entire disappearance from the stage of life. In

predominant, although there is no little confusion in the account which this splendid myth, in other respects so clear, gives of this period. It at last, however, comes to an end, and when the complement of the times had been filled up, and the change must take place, then, it is said, the Divine Pilot, letting go the helm, retires to his secret place of observation, and destiny and innate tendency are left to turn back the revolutions of the world: τότε δὴ τοῦ παντὸς ὁ μὲν κυβερνήτης, οἷον πηδαλίων οἴακος ἀφέμενος εἰς τὴν αὑτοῦ περιωπὴν ἀπέστη· τὸν δὲ δὴ κόσμον πάλιν ἀνέστρεφεν Ειμαρμένη τε καὶ ξύμφυτος ἐπιθυμία, 272, Ε. At the same time, the other Aaíuoves, to whom, as presiding divinities, or angels,* the various parts of the universe had been allotted in subordination to the Supreme Ruler, hear the signal, and retire from their respective provinces. Then commences the predominance of evil. Nature, through all her works, gives signs of wo. First, a strange tremour or commotion (σeloμòs πoλùç) is felt in every part of the abandoned world. After a while, however, to employ Plato's imagery, the vessel ceases from the tumultuous surging which at first ensues, and enjoying a calm, gets at length into the new course in which it is destined to proceed. The world goes on for a season with some degree of regularity, in consequence of influences being yet exerted by those laws and principles to which it had been accustomed in that previous state when it was directly under the Divine

continuation of the same wild and strange fancy, the dead are said to come out of their graves, and thus to be born again from the earth: ἐκ τῶν τετελευτηκότων αὖ, κειμένων δὲ ἐν γῇ, πάλιν ἐκεῖ ξυνισ ταμένους καὶ ἀναβιωσκομένους, ἕπεσθαι τῇ τροπῇσυνανακυκλουμένης εἰς τἀναντία τῆς γενέσεως. We can hardly help thinking that in this singular myth may be traced the rudiments of an ancient doctrine of a resurrection. The general idea intended by Plato is clear enough, and yet so much confusion rests upon the details, that it sometimes is difficult to decide to which period they in fact belong. * See Note XXXIV., on the Platonic Doctrine of the Animation of