except along the Missouri river. I am convinced, however, that boring at a moderate depth, at almost any point, would penetrate the thin bed seen at Rulo. The quarries of limestone, for building purposes, &c., are much finer at Salem than at any other point observed in the county. The town is located upon an elevation on the point of the wedge of land between the two forks of the Nemaha. Forming a part of the town-site is a high hill, with two beds of limestone, both of which form large quarries, which yield an abundance of stone for all economical purposes. All along the Nemaha and its numerous branches are quite well wooded tracts of land, which are held at a high price, though no portion of the county would be called well timbered in any of the States east of the Mississippi.

BLUFF FORMATION.

I have not unfrequently alluded to a superficial deposit of yellow silicious marl, occupying much of the country, and concealing the underlying basis rocks, thus rendering the study of the details of the geology somewhat difficult. The geologist is dependent upon natural exposures of the basis rocks by streams, or by uplifts of the beds by internal volcanic action, or by artificial excavations. Now in a new country there are very few artificial works, and all over the State of Nebraska the beds of rock are horizontal or nearly so. Indeed, it is very seldom that the beds incline to such an extent as to be perceptible to the eye. That there is a general inclination of the beds to the west or northwest is evident, but it is very gradual. This yellow marl deposit, or bluff formation, as it was called in the geological report of the State of Missouri, is found largely developed in the valley of the Missouri, and extends from its mouth to the foot of the great bend above the mouth of White river. This deposit was first noticed by Sir Charles Lyell in his visit to this country in descending the Mississippi many years ago, and he regarded it as the equivalent of the loess of the Rhine. It is called the "bluff formation," because it forms the picturesque hills or bluffs which are seen along the Missouri river, especially on the Iowa side, between Council Bluffs and Sioux City. This deposit was accumulated just prior to the present period, after the surface had received its present outline by erosion, and after the great valley of the Missouri had been carved out. It would appear that one of the comparatively recent geological events was the settling back of the waters of the Gulf of Mexico by a depression of all this western country in such a way that there was a vast fresh-water lake, extending up the valleys of the larger streams for a considerable distance into the interior of the country, generally not more than from 50 to 130 miles. Its greatest thickness is along the Missouri river, where it is sometimes seen in vertical exposures from 50 to 150 feet in thickness. Sometimes the stratification is quite distinct; but, as a rule, no lines of deposition are visible, showing that the materials were brought down into the lake by the myriad little streams, and mingling with the waters of the lake settled to the bottom quietly like gently falling snow. the drift or gravel deposit underneath are abundant exhibitions of turbulent waters, but never in the yellow marl beds. All this marl is full of nutritious matter for vegetation, and it is probable that it is to this deposit that the inexhaustible fertility of all the river counties of Nebraska may be attributed.

In

Upon this marl rests the soil, which is usually darker colored, and is composed largely of humus arising from the annual decay of a luxuriant growth of vegetation. The soil on the upland is usually from twelve to eighteen inches thick, and along the bottoms of streams is sometimes ten to twenty feet in thickness. In the yellow marl formation are found numerous shells, all identical with recent species, and most of them living in the vicinity. This shows the modern character of the deposit. There are also some bones of extinct animals as the mastodon, elephant, a species of beaver of huge dimensions, and other

animals, mingled with bones of species now living. Along the Missouri the bluffs formed by this deposit are very steep, and I have seen vegetation growing upon them when the sides had an inclination of fifty degrees. These hills, although furnishing good grass, cannot be devoted to the raising of the cereals; but, as the soil is chemically about the same as that of the loess of the Rhine, which makes that val'ey one of the finest vine-growing countries of Europe, the same may be inferred of this region, and is is my belief that at some future period these marl hills will produce some of the finest vineyards in America.

Erratic blocks or boulders are most abundant along the river, yet a few are found from time to time half buried beneath the surface. They reveal the fact at once to one acquainted with the rocks of Nebraska that they are foreigners and were transported from Dakota, Minnesota, or the country bordering upon the Rocky mountains. Many of them are red quartzite, comparatively little worn, but now and then are seen masses of the different varieties of granite, gneiss, hornblende, &c., which remind one of the rocks in the mountains. red quartzite is the underlying rock all over the north, and is the formation in which the red pipe-stone layer of the Indians is located. It is supposed by Professor James Hall to belong to the period of the Huronian system, so largely developed about Lake Superior and Canada.

The

Fences are made mostly of wood and in the rude way, which indicates either great carelessness or want of timber. Wire fences seem to be the cheapest and best, and are now coming into general use. Alongside of them may be planted the osage orange hedge, and by the time the wire fence begins to yield to decay, a good hedge, which will turn any stock, supplies its place and adds greatly to the beauty of the farm. Most of the energetic farmers appreciate this, and are setting out hedges; but improvements of all kinds must be gradual, from the fact that nearly all the settlers come into the State poor. I believe that in ten years from this time there will be some of the most beautiful farms in Nebraska to be found in the United States. I have urged the farmers to make use of the honey locust, (Gleditschia tricanthus,) three thorned locust, a native tree which grows finely, and may be so trained as to make an impenetrable hedge. When caltivated as a forest tree it makes very handsome and durable timber for fence posts, railroad ties, &c.

Tree planting has received comparatively little attention in Richardson county, on account of the greater amount of native timber. Along the Missouri and most of the larger streams the wooded portions are extending themselves, so that the area is nearly doubled since the country was first settled. Many groves of fine, healthy young trees, of oak, hickory, elm, cottonwood, black walnut, honey locust, &c., are seen. Some persons are so sanguine as to believe that if the fires are kept out of the prairie the whole country will become covered with forest trees in a few years; but that is certainly an impossibility, and the old tertiary forests can be restored only by the hand of man.

It is my belief that the subject of peat will soon attract the attention of the people of this State. But few persons seem to know what it is, or where it may be found. Their ideas of it are founded upon what they have read of the peat bogs of Ireland, where it is composed mostly of a kind of moss, or "sphagnum." Peat is really an accumulation of half-decomposed vegetable matter, formed in wet or swampy places, and may therefore be composed of any plants that are fond of growing in wet places. Underneath the water the vegetable matter, which is composed of the roots and stems of the weed, grass, and rushes growing most abundantly in low places all over the west, undergoes a slow decomposition, or combustion, as it were, so that a sort of imperfect coal is formed, not subject to that pressure by which the true coal is formed. In the State of Iowa, opposite Nebraska, I am informed that peat beds are now worked with success. It is estimated that in Massachusetts alone there are 120,000,000 cords of peat, and an organized company is now operating at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, making

100 tons of crude peat per day, which, when dry, makes 30 tons of fuel, ready for use.

My attention has been directed to several valuable peat beds in Otoe, Nemaha, and Richardson counties, and although the area covered by these wet places is not great in the State, yet I regard it as the most certain source of fuel to the people during the interval that must elapse before the artificial forests will have reached a suitable size to supply the country with timber. There is scareely a township in the State that will not have a small quantity of peat, which ranks next to coal as fuel. At Falls City I observed some quite extensive beds; also at Salem. There are several kinds of peat, as hearth turf, grass turf, leaf turf, mud turf. pitch turf, &c., and when the people of the State give this matter their serious attention, I have no doubt that various kinds will be found, in a far more abundant supply than I have suspected from my observations. When the annual

fires sweep over these prairies, in the autumn, they not unfrequently burn down into the boggy places a foot or two. I shall hereafter make careful observations on this subject, and preserve specimens of the peat, from time to time, as opportunity presents.

Building stone is found in moderate quantities all over the county, but it is by no means as well supplied as some of the more interior counties, especially the second tier from the Missouri. Still there is sufficient to supply the wants of the people, and suitable material for burning to lime.

At Hiawatha, Kansas, a number of buildings are built of a yellow limestone that is composed almost entirely of organic remains. It is a soft but very tenacious rock, and is easily wrought into good and durable building material. This bed undoubtedly forms one of the underlying rocks of this county, though I did not observe it in my examinations. At Hiawatha an excellent cement is made from lime and sand, which, when dry, is as hard as the rock it cements. The materials for brick making, &c., are everywhere without limit. There are a number of good mill sites along the Nemaha; probably all that are needed. The crops throughout the county are looking very fine, indeed. The grasshoppers have not disturbed the corn, and they have left a good half crop for the farmers. The grass crop is unusually fine; the upland will cut 1 to 2 tons to the acre, and the bottom 1 to 3 tons.

I have but little time to elaborate these brief reports, merely seizing a little time now and then to write them hurriedly, but they will afford material which can be expanded into the final report. I hope they will at least furnish suitable material to be incorporated into the appendix of your annual report. I shall be glad to get any suggestions that may present themselves to you from time to

time.

PAWNEE COUNTY.

This county is equally fertile with Richardson, the latter possessing only the geographical advantage of bordering on the great navigable river Missouri. Its surface is more rolling or undulating, the slopes are more gentle, and, to the eye, it is even more desirable for farming purposes. Both counties are remarkably well watered and well drained by nature, so that there is hardly a foot of land in either that is not susceptible of cultivation. I cannot ascertain that one produces better crops than the other. Richardson county may have more woodland than Pawnee, but the numerous branches of the North and South Nemaha, circulating all over the county, render the land very attractive to the settler and speculator, who have absorbed, already, every acre of land in it.

It is not irrelevant for me to state, in a report which is to convey information in regard to a district of country and promote immigration, that the inhabitants of Pawnee county belong to a superior class, with respect to their industry and morals, and that there is not a locality in the county where ardent spirits are

sold as a beverage. There was an attempt on the part of some person to establish a saloon at Pawnee City. The proprietor was at once waited upon by the ladies of the place and politely but firmly requested to leave the county within twenty-four hours. Of course the prosperity of this beautiful region is decided. Pawnee county lies directly west of Richardson, forming one of the southern tier of counties. It is entirely underlaid by rocks of the upper coal measures, which give a remarkable uniformity of character to its surface. These rocks are composed of alternate beds of clays, sandstones, and limestones, with some thin beds of coal. Although no seams of coal were observed in Richardson county at any distance from the Missouri river, yet soon after reaching the limits of Pawnee county a bed of coal appears, which is creating some excitement among the people. It has not yet been observed along the Nemaha river itself, but on its small branches; but I suppose the reason of this is the great erosion of the underlying rocks in the river valley, and the subsequent deposition of a vast thickness of alluvial material, effectually concealing all the outcroppings. The first locality where the coal appears is about fifteen miles west of Salem, on Turner's branch, on school section township 1, range 12, one and a half miles northeast of Frieze's mill. The following section of the beds is given in descending order:

4. Limestone, somewhat irregular in cleavage at top, but rather massive at base, four to eight feet thick.

3. Bluish black indurated clay, some portion slaty, and filled with fossils, three to four feet thick.

2. Rather pure coal, ten to sixteen inches thick.

1. Yellow plastic clay, passing up into a hard blue clay, upon which the coal lies as if pressed down, twenty feet thick.

No rocks below bed 1 are seen in this immediate vicinity. The coal seemed to be packed closely down on to the clay beneath, like masses of flat rock, as if it had been originally deposited there like a layer of clay or sand. The clay below is quite hard and filled with fragments of fern leaves, stems of the rushlike calamites, like the clay underneath the coal seams in Ohio or Pennsylvania. The under surface of the coal seems to be composed of stems, like grasses, as if the vegetable debris began upon a densely grass-covered surface. The vegetable impressions do not go down into the clay more than an inch or two, and above the seam, where the coal ceases, all traces of vegetable matter disappear and the clay is charged with a variety of molluscous remains. The clay above the coal is very hard, and yields with difficulty to the pick, and the coal is extracted with great labor. Several hundred bushels have been taken out and sold, and the bank of the creek reveals fifteen or twenty openings like that shown by the illustration. This shows the coal seam at the base, the bed of indurated clay above, which is generally three to four feet thick, all of which has to be removed, and the heavy-bedded limestone forms an excellent cap-rock above. At Frieze's mill, still further on, this same bed of coal is again wrought with some success.

On Mr. Boston's farm, township 1, range 12, section 34, several openings have been made; and here the coal seam increases in thickness to sixteen inches. Mr. B. has taken out nine hundred bushels of coal here. He finds a ready market for it at the mine at thirty cents per bushel. This coal seam averages a bushel of coal to a square foot of surface. I have collected abundant specimens of this coal at different localities, and they will be properly investigated for the final report.

This seam is also worked on Lee's branch and on Miners' creek, so that it is now wrought, more or less, over an area of ten miles square, at least. The coal seems to have been worked with more system, industry, and success than in any other portion of the State.

Near Pawnee City there is another small seam of coal holding a higher geo

logical position, which has attracted some attention. I made a careful examination of all the localities, and found it not more than four inches in thickness generally. On Mr. Jordan's farm, at the water level of Turkey creek, a branch of South Nemaha, this seam increased to eight inches, but so impure and full of sulphure; of iron as to be quite unfit for use.

A company has been organized at Pawnee City, called the Pawnee County Coal Company, with Governor Butler as president, with the object of searching for coal in this district. They had intended to commence boring last spring, but waited for my coming to advise them of the best locality to begin operations. I gave them the best information in my power, but I could not risk my reputation upon any positive statement in favor of the existence of coal at all in this region, or any workable bed in the State.

There are some reasons in favor of the existence of a bed of coal in Nebraska, at a moderate depth beneath the surface, and there are others against it. I am inclined to the belief that the coal measures of Nebraska form a portion of the western rim of the great western coal basin, and that none but similar thin seams to those now cropping out along the Missouri river, and at other localities, will ever be found. But the exact truth can never be determined except by boring. At Des Moines, in Iowa, about one hundred and seventy-five miles east of Nebraska City, a bed of coal six feet in thickness was penetrated at a depth of two hundred feet.

Professor White, of the Iowa geological survey, and Mr. Meek, paleontologist of the Nebraska survey, traced the rock in which this bed of coal is located from Des Moines, across the State of Iowa, to Nebraska City. They made an estimate, by taking into account the general dip of the rocks west or northwest, that this same bed would be reached at from four hundred to six hundred feet beneath the surface at Nebraska City.

According to a section given by Major Hawn of the Missouri coal-fields, there should be a six-foot bed at a depth of five hundred or six hundred feet beneath the surface at Rulo, for the rocks rise from beneath quite rapidly in descending the Missouri. The reasons that cause me to hesitate to give positive encouragement are, the entire want of success in the borings made at Omaha and Nebraska City; the failure, or only partial success, at St. Joseph, Missouri, at Leavenworth City, and all over the northern part of Kansas, where the rocks hold a geological position several hundred feet lower than at either of the points mentioned; the apparent thickening of the coal measure rocks in their westward extension from Des Moines; the fact, also, that Mr. Broadhead, a geologist and civil engineer connected with the Missouri survey, has published a detailed section of the rocks of northern Missouri, opposite Nebraska, and finds about two thousand feet of upper coal measure beds, with only the thin seams of coal already mentioned; also, that in these same upper coal measures, limestones are found thrown up by the Black Hills, and exposed fully all along the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, without the remotest indication, even by a slate bed, of coal having existed in them You will, therefore, readily see why I hesitate to give a positive opinion, and why I am inclined still again to express the opinion given some years ago, that the State of Nebraska borders on the great western coal basin.

I have stated to the members of the Pawnee County Coal Company that a boring may be made eight hundred feet for about one thousand six hundred dollars, which will settle the question, for that depth, for the whole county for all time to come. It would hardly be profitable to go any deeper, and the question would arise whether it would not be cheaper to hasten the building of railroads. and the transportation of fuel from Iowa or other neighboring States.

Building stone, limestone, &c., are very abundant all over Pawnee county. Thin beds, from six inches to two feet in thickness, crop out from the sides of the hills in many places, and almost every farm has a quarry.