those which are worth while. There should be tests of sight, of hearing, and of the nervous and muscular systems. Further, there should be examinations of general form and symmetry of the body; of posture and mechanical adjustment; of spine and feet; of heart and lungs; of teeth; of throat and nasal passages, where, in younger children more particularly, enlarged tonsils and adenoid growths often injure health and interferes, perhaps seriously, with mental and bodily development. Beyond this, there should be judgment of nutrition and general vitality, and, finally, an estimation of temperament and other general characteristics difficult to define, but important to take into account. The observations and judgment of the child should be thoro and complete, and those of a wise and carefully trained examiner.

The information gained should be furnished to the home, and thru the home the attention of the family physician or medical specialist, and should be directed to conditions about which there may be question. There are, of course, technical medical examinations and tests which it is neither necessary nor desirable for the school examiner to undertake. This co-operation between school and home is of mutual advantage and of great importance in this, as in all other matters which concern the child's welfare. The teacher, again, should have all of this special information which will help to a more favorable adjustment of school work. This biologic knowledge is essential to any true or just estimation of the pupil's intellectual power or capacity, and to an understanding of personality and individual characteristics.

This examination, let it be repeated, must have a broad educational motive. It is the fundamental feature of school hygiene and should be the basis of all educa ion.

In the second place, school hygiene should test and judge the entire environment of the school, its adaptability to the pupil, and effect upon health. To be included, also, in this department of the subject are the hygiene of instruction; methods of study, of recitation, of school examinations; home study; length and arrangement of the school program; recesses; school lunches; alternation of activities in the schedule. All of these items in this passive and active school environment of the pupil should be subjected to careful study and judged partly and primarily with reference to health.

Health is not everything. It is not to be considered in itself as an exclusive end of living. It should not be the main or final goal of education. It is, however, an absolutely essential means to forms of human achievement of most worth. It is even more essential to the welfare of the future than of the present, if the race is to progress and not deteriorate.

The health of the adult under certain conditions may be justifiably sacrificed to other ends, but the claim is made with great confidence that

the health of the growing child may be sacrificed to nothing; that nothing may be allowed in education which injures or interferes with the pupil's health in any way whatever; nay more—that, with our present and larger social view of education, its first care and effort, as has been stated earlier, should be the preservation and improvement of health and organic power and efficiency, as the fundamental condition of individual and social well-being.

As Dean James E. Russell of Teachers College, New York, so well pointed out in his report two years ago:

School life is a highly artificial product of modern civilization. It is today one of the most sedentary occupations in which workers are engaged, and its social significance is readily discoverable in the fact that approximately fifteen millions of children-more then one-fifth of our total population are being influenced for good or ill by the schoolroom environment. Serious as are the evils of sedentary occupations in general, their disadvantages are especially emphasized in the case of growing children, who are often unduly crowded together in our public schools. Moreover, the urban tendencies of our population make it extremely difficult to secure to the young that which is essential to their physical well-being — namely, light and air and freedom of movement.

In the third place, it is the function of school hygiene, thru the instruction which is called physical training, to provide for those larger motor activities which should supplement the exercises and movements otherwise required by school work. These larger fundamental movements are necessary to counteract certain undesirable tendencies in posture and action of school life, and for the health and complete organic development of the pupil. The beneficial effect of this training upon the nervous system, upon mental and even moral qualities, may be as important and definite as that upon the body in general. In this scheme of physical education should be grouped and co-ordinated the more formal gymnastics and games, the simple corrective and relaxing exercises to be used between classes, and the free play of recess periods. It is desirable to correlate the gymnastics, as far as may be practicable, with the interests of regular school work, and to make them in any case more rational, practical, and serviceable in many ways than they have been in the past. It is not in place here to discuss the details of the technical work of physical training, but simply to state that this belongs to the larger field of school hygiene.

The biologic examinations which have been described will give most necessary and valuable information as a basis for the adaptation of exercise and the direction of the general physical education of the pupil.

Finally, school hygiene should provide for the instruction of the pupil in matters relating to health and hygiene. No knowledge is of more worth than that which bears upon the immediate problems of life. Human living must always rest upon a biologic basis. The human being knows less instinctively how to live as civilization advances. The study of the science and art of health must play an increasingly important part

in the education of the future. In a recent popular article on health, Dr. T. Mitchell Prudden, one of our best authorities on general hygiene, emphasizes the importance of this factor in education in the following words:

One of the most urgent necessities of the coming years is education in personal hygiene. This knowledge of the ways of healthful living must be systematically and intelligently imparted in the schools, and it should not be perverted, as in many instances it is today, to serve the worthy but narrow aims of an anti-alcohol or anti-tobacco crusade.

And he adds in another place : "Honest hygiene must be taught in schools."

All of the health instruction should be under the supervision of a special teacher, that there may be rational progression in matter and method thru the grades, the working out and suggestion of correlations of other topics with hygiene which seems practicable, and the effective teaching of the subject where it is given as a distinct course.

In conclusion: If the work of school hygiene is to be successfully accomplished, there must be :

1. An educational philosophy which recognizes health, not as an end in education or life, but as an essential means to human achievement, immediate and remote; a philosophy, again, which provides practically for the preservation and improvement of health and the development of those fundamental organic qualities which are so essential to the success of the individual, and even more to the integrity of the race and the permanent welfare of society; and, finally, a philosophy which makes place and means for the instruction of the young with reference to life on its biologic side so that they may intelligently and successfully meet the problems of living as they present themselves.

2. The different phases of this health side of education may best be accomplished by uniting the fields of school hygiene and physical education under one department of school effort for the purpose of supervision and administration. The position of teacher or director of physical training is already recognized and provided for in many schools. The efforts of this special teacher are, or should be, devoted primarily to the interests of health. This field may be advantageously enlarged and called "physical education and school hygiene." Professional schools and courses of instruction are needed for the training of these health specialists. The special teacher or supervisor must be trained very thoroly and broadly to meet effectively the demands of this larger, more dignified, and richer field of education. These specialists in hygiene should be prepared to look after the various interests of this field, to supervise that part of the work which falls naturally to the grade teacher or to others, and to perform well, from every point of view, the work which belongs logically to the health specialist.

3. The special teacher of hygiene, however, can alone do very little of this large and varied work. Every teacher, supervisor, principal, and superintendent in the school should have a keen and intelligent appreciation of health values and interests, and of the measures necessary to preserve and foster them. If our general teachers and educators are to have this understanding of hygiene, which is essential to their necessary and effective co-operation in the united effort which is needed, there must be, beyond the general instruction in hygiene in school and college, thoro courses in physical education and school hygiene in all the normal and training schools and colleges for teachers. Such courses are being advocated and introduced into some of the normal schools of Germany and other European countries, and are finding place already in a few institutions in the United States.

DISCUSSION

HOMER W. ZIRKLE, principal of the Elmwood School, Denver, Colo.- Medical inspection of schools has been instituted in many of the cities of Germany, France, and America. Wherever it has been tried, results show conclusively its value. A large percentage of all school children are defective in sight, hearing, or some other part of the physical organism. A very large percentage of these defectives are unaware of any bodily ailment. Medical inspection in America seems to have been instituted chiefly for preventing the spread of contagious diseases; but it may have a far wider usefulness.

The relation between the physiological and the psychical functions is becoming more and more recognized, as is shown by the attention now given to physical culture and the health of the body. It is an established fact that physical exercise produces mental fatigue —į, e., fatigues the nerve centers—and that mental exertion produces muscular fatigue. Thus the mental and the physical are mutually interdependent.

Since education is concerned with growth of mind, and growth of mind depends on growth of brain, and growth of brain on growth of body, it is all-important to determine the laws which regulate physical development and to know in what degree body growth may be taken as an index of cerebral development. From anthropometrical measurements and comparisons of different classes of society, made in America, England, and other countries, it is clearly shown that a man's stature is somewhat modified by environment, and that mental development depends on the normal development of the body. The work required of the pupil of the average strength cannot be done without injury by the pupil of less than the average strength. It should be the duty of the school physician to determine the cause of the weakness, whether it be from the lack of nutrition, bad sanitation, sickness, or what not; and to suggest the remedy. The medical inspector should always be psychologist as well as physician, that he may assist the teacher in determining how much mental exertion should be required of each age or period of development, that evil may not result from overexertion at critical periods. He should assist the teachers in classifying the pupils with respect to their physical abilities, placing those together who are physically able to do without injury the full amount of work of their age, and making another division for those whose physical development makes it probable that they cannot do the work without injury, and who need special care and watchfulness. In periods of rapid growth, care must be had not to irritate unduly or to depress by inappropriate tasks the nerve centers so as to produce various forms of neurotic diseases. The protection of the growing brain from misdirected work is a difficult task and an appropriate undertaking for medical skill.

The system of medical inspection of schools should be under the control of the board of education. It should be a department of the school system, and only related to the board of health as the two bodies may be of mutual benefit in performing their respective functions. It would be less liable to interfere with any other department of the school system, and be free from the vicissitudes frequently incident to the board of health from political changes.

success.

By daily medical inspection diseases are detected in their incipiency, and therefore most easily dealt with, and cases of infectious diseases can be isolated. The treatment of diphtheria with anti-toxin, it is well known, should be as early as possible to insure In November and December of 1898, in Chicago, there were 219 cases of diphtheria treated with anti-toxin. Of this number nine died, but there were no deaths among those treated on the first or second day. Medical inspection of school children is the best means of preventing disease. It should be the aim of the medical profession to prevent sickness as well as to cure the sick, and by doing this the profession is attaining its highest ideal. It is a public blessing and should be paid for from the public purse. Medical inspection is truly prophylactic work, and when it is well established our physicians will be able to broaden their field of usefulness by the more careful study of the growing body in relation to exercise and education. The field is a practical one and worthy the ambition of the best talent of our race.

Disease not checked or prevented in childhood is what makes dependents in adults. Our country is burdened with the insane, the feeble-minded, the deaf and dumb, the blind, the epileptic, orphans, and paupers. Ohio is a fair representative of the states. There was spent in Ohio in 1894 for charities $4,175,915.47. The income of all the colleges of the state for the year 1896-97 amounted to about $1,000,000. Over four times as much was spent for charities as for higher education. Education is nothing without health and a physical constitution. It is high time that we strike a blow at the root of all this defectiveness. One does not wonder at the condition of adults when he reflects on the percentage of defectives among children. Strong, robust, healthful childhood would prevent much of this inability in adult life. The cost of medical inspection is but a bagatelle compared to the good it accomplishes in mitigating suffering and making those self-supporting who otherwise would probably be objects of charity. We spend millions in taking care of these dependents: would it not be true economy and equally just and appropriate to take like care of all children who show beginnings of spinal curvature, defective vision or hearing, signs of consumption, or symptoms of nervous diseases of every kind? These diseases, if detected in their incipiency, could generally be cured. Chronic diseases of all kinds often have their beginnings in environment. It requires a bacteriologist to detect the germs of disease. The state which provides a place for the assembling of children and does not provide for the prevention of the spread of contagion or any disease, whose germs could be detected by a competent expert, is morally responsible.

SEX DIFFERENTIATION IN RELATION TO SECONDARY EDUCATION

A. H. YODER, PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON,

SEATTLE, WASH.

The effect of sex difference so far as school education is concerned, is not important until about the time children begin their secondary education.

As the body nears the completion of its quantitative growth, nature