Italian queen over the comb. He had Italianized 13 colonies in one day. Care is required in removing the dead queen out of the way as the bees might cluster about the body. In one case the head and abdomen of the queen were six feet apart when large clusters settled on the disjointed remains. They will cluster even about a leg of deceased royalty, and the safety of the new queen depends entirely upon the removal of the old queen. His preference was for hives 14x9 or 10 inches. He had found his bees profitable. He had used the extractor, but he found a prejudice against the use of honey prepared by the extracting process. But when it is known that honey in its purest form was obtained in this way he thought it would be preferred. He could see no objection to candied honey.

Mr. A. W. Windhorst, also of St. Charles, related his experience. He had good success with Italian bees. The honey last season, owing to the shortness of the sweet clover crop, was furnished mostly by Spanish needles and smartweed.

The season was too wet for sweet clover. Mr. Thomas Parker, of St. Louis, gave his experience at some length.

Mr. W. G. Smith, also of St. Louis, said he commenced keeping bees 15 years ago, for profit and experiment; has had at different times from 10 to 40 colonies. He found, on the whole, that it was a very profitable industry for Missouri. He thought more of our people ought to go into the culture of bees. An acre of ground it was estimated would produce from 15 to 20 fbs. of honey, He estimated that St. Louis was capable of supporting 1,500 colonies where now there were only from 300 to 400 colonies. There was the blue grass, the forests and Shaw's garden to draw the nectar from. He entered into a close estimate of the yield and the profits, showing that bee-keeping would pay from 25 to 30 per cent. on the investment, but the bee cultivator must understand it; he must have a taste, a love for it. It is like other business. Nine-tenths of those inexperienced in the business who go into it fail. It requires work, hard work, and especially a practical knowledge of wintering bees.

Dr. Petzer said he commenced some 5 or 6 years ago with bee on the brain. He experienced considerable trouble in wintering his bees. He had buried them in the ground and in the cellar, but he found the nearer he conformed to nature the better. He described various hives used, and (bjected to a cellar.

Mr. Smith said he favored a dark cellar well ventilated.

Other gentlemen also gave their views.

Mr. C. V. Riley then gave his views on the question selected for discussion at a previous meeting-Do bees make or gather honey? Mr. Riley said he was fully convinced that bees make honey. Honey as we find it is a manufactured substance. We find in the calyx of flowers nectar, not honey. The bee laps up the nectar, it is taken into the stomach, digested and regulated in the cell of the comb. In this connection the professor gave a scientific description, illustrated by a drawing of the hyinenoptera, to which the bee belongs.

He then took up the next questionWhether bees injure fruit?-and said he was satisfied from direct observation that bees do injure fruit, and he thought that a

man should not increase his stock of bees at the expense of his neighbors' fruit.

The secretary read an interesting essay from the South, giving an analysis of honey and nectar, and tending to prove the affirmative of the question, that bees make instead of merely gather honey.

Other essays were read by the secretary, and after some other business the meeting adjourned.

Do Bees Make or Gather Honey?

A PAPER READ BEFORE THE MISSOURI VALLEY ASSOCIATION.

Gentlemen:-At the organization of the Missouri Valley Bee - Keepers' Association, the secretary and treasurer of the association were instructed to solicit essays upon practical subjects, to be read at the next meeting which is to take place on the 4th of April, 1876. As I have been experimenting and making researches on one of the subjects I thought I would give you the result.

In taking up the subject, "Do bees make or gather honey?" I will not try to prove that bees make honey, but that they gather a sweet matter-nectar-from flowers and that this matter is transformed into honey; and my only aim in writing this will be to try to raise a serious interest on this too much neglected question. Though this

question may not be of interest to a majority of bee-keepers, it is nevertheless of great utility in apiculture and might have in practice very important consequences.

In

Apiculturists and naturalists supposed, and suppose yet, that honey has the same composition as the nectar of the flowers; and in many European bee-books it is stated that the bees merely gather the honey and deposit it, without alteration, in the cells where it only loses water. presence of the confusion and contradiction existing at present on the matters gathered and produced by bees, it is necessary in order to arrive at a decision, to make a chemical and physiological statement of the production and composition of honey. In nearly all the flowers in which fecundation. is accompanied by the intervention of insects, there are organs, named by botanists nectaries, secreting a sweet liquid matter, which is generally known as nectar. It is this nectar that the bees gather to produce honey. Now we will see that nectar and honey are two distinct things, and of a different composition, and that the bees cause the nectar to undergo a chemical transformation to convert it into honey.

Mr. Braconnot has chemically analyzed the nectar of over 30 species of plants of 25 different families, and he has found them to be of about a constant composition. He says that the nectar is always identical with itself. It is a colorless and limpid liquid of a density little superior to that of water. It does not contain, in general, traces of acid, it is a neutral body, and blue and red litmus paper is without action on it. He represents the composition of nectar as follows: cane sugar (or saccharose), 13; uncrystalizable sugar, 10; water, 77-total

100.

He has found no trace of mannite nor glucose. Now, it will be seen below, that honey contains principally an excess of

glucose, some mannite and very little or no cane sugar. Lowitz was the first, in 1792, who found out that the sweet crystalizable matter found in honey was not cane sugar. Proust,in analyzing some candied honey,has shown the identity of this crystalizable sugar with grape sugar, which he had discovered in the fruits-glucose. Guilbert has placed in evidence the presence of a large proportion of uncrystalizable sugar to which he gave the name of "sugar of honey." Later, Guibourt has found some mannite in honey; and more recently Soubeiran has had recourse to optical analysis to separate the different sugars which are found in honey. M. M. Dubrunfaut, Roders and Calloux have completed by their analysis the preceding researches. Mr. Calloux gives the following as the composition of field honey: glucose, 45.10; uucrystalizable sugar (or mellose), 43.95; water, 7.70; waxy matter, 1.15; nitrogenous and acid matters, 2.10-total 100. As honey made on the mountains is a little different, I also give an analysis made of honey taken at 3,600 feet: glucose and cane sugar included, 56; uncrystalizable sugar or mellose, 30.4; water, 8.5; mannite, 1.9; waxy matter, 0.6; nitrogenous and acid matters, 2.6-total 100.

As we see, by the analysis given above, honey is a mixture in variable proportions, of a certain number of definite organic compounds. In its most complete state it contains glucose, uncrystalizable sugar-mellose, some water, mannite, cane sugar, an acid, a greasy coloring matter, and some nitrogenous matter which comes from pollen. I think it would be well to give some of the principal properties of some of the bodies which enter into the composition of honey, and will try to explain as much as possible how the transformations take place. First we have glucose which is a crystalizable sugar; it ordinarily presents itself under the form of small, white,compact, agglomerated crystals. It is found in grapes and in different fruits. The most economical method of obtaining it is by acting on starch or lignin with diluted sulphuric acid. It is three times less soluble in water than cane sugar, and its solution at equal concentration is three times less sweet.

Mellose or uncrystalized sugar is a liquid sugar which does not crystalize. According to Braconnot the uncrystalizable sugar of nectar is, by its properties, distinct from the uncrystalizable sugar of honey. Therefore it must have undergone an isomeric transformation to produce either mellose or glucose which are found in honey.

Mannite is a body which is naturally found in manna. As it has been ascertained that mannite is a product of the viscous fermentation of complex saccharine mixtures, we see that it is not necessary the bees have gathered the natural mannite, but that it might have formed itself subsequently in honey. Mr. Linnermann has obtained mannite by combining hydrogen with glucose. I will mention, nevertheless, that mannite is most generally met with in mountain honey. The presence of a free acid has been ascertained in honey. It is by the influence of this acid, supposed to be identical with the acid substance found in the bees, that the transformation of cane sugar of nectar into mellose and glucose might have been caused.

It is an established fact that if a diluted acid is made to act upon cane sugar, subsequently grape sugar is formed. It is natural

to suppose that an analogous transformation, under the influence of the acid principle known to exist in the bees, has changed the cane sugar of the nectar into uncrystalizable sugar. It is natural to come to the conclusion that the bees gather the nectar from flowers and that this nectar in passing in their body, under the influence of agents not well recognized, undergoes a change and comes out in the state of honey.

We are well aware that the bees takes the nectar from the flowers with its bill and that it is conducted by this organ into the mouth where the tongue pushes it into the æsophagus, which in its turn makes it pass into the stomach. When its stomach is full of nectar the bee returns to the hive and disgorges it into the cell. It is supposable that it is during this time that the acid of the bee mixes with the nectar and some of the transformation takes place. We have effectively seen above that the composition of honey is essentially different from that of nectar. The nectar contains more than half of its sweet matter in a state of cane sugar, while this sugar, when present in honey, is found but in a very small proportion.

In short, glucose don't exist in the nectar and it is found in large proportion in honey. I have fed some bees with a thin syrup made of 25 parts of crushed sugar and 75 parts of water, and after it was evaporated and capped by the bees, extracted it, and though it was perfectly neutral when fed, it had then a slight acid reaction, and contained a large proportion of uncrystalizable sugar and could obtain but a very small proportion of crystalized cane sugar. I fed them also with a syrup made of equal parts of sugar and water colored with cochineal, and after it was capped, extracted it and it it was very much lighter in color.

After the experiments and the chemical analysis given above, I have no doubt that it will be easily seen that the bees effect a real chemical change to produce honey from the nectar; and this process is one which appertains to animal chemistry, a species of assimilation, elabration and excretion of which we have so many other instances in the cell functions of glands in the animal economy.

This is, indeed, the old views, for Lord Bacon says of the bee: "Haec indigesti e floribus mella colligit, deinde in viscerum cellulis concoctalmaturat, iisdem tamden insudat, donec ad integram perfectionem perduxerit." PAUL L. VIALLON.

Bayou Goula, La.

The Best Hive for all Purposes.

A PAPER READ BEFORE THE MISSOURI VALLEY BEE-KEEPERS' ASSOCIATION.

"What is the best hive for all purposes?" In what I shall offer I hope I may be able to throw some light on the other question-"the best mode of obtaining box honey." I will try and give you a description of the hive that I use, and I begin with the frame, which is the most important part of any hive. This frame is here known as the Bingham frame, and is the invention of Mr. T. F. Bingham, of Abronia, Allegan Co., Michigan, and in justice to Mr. Bingham, I must inform your convention that he holds letters patent on this frame. But its advantages are so great that any bee

keeper can well afford to pay him liberally for the right to use it. I would here say that I am in no way interested in this frame personally, and write only in the interest of bee-keepers generally.

The top bar of this frame is a square stick of wood in. square, and when used in the hive one corner is uppermost, thus: Mr. Bingham uses them 21 to 22 in. long. I use them 20 in. long, but were I to start anew, I would use them 24 in. long. The end pieces of the frame are % inch thick, 1% or 1 in. wide, and 6 inches long. There is no bottom piece to the frame. The frame looks thus:

We use from 8 to 12 of these frames in a hive, 10 frames are ample for a very good swarm. The ends being 11⁄2 in. wide stand close together when in the hive, and really make the side of the hive thus:

The diamond marks indicating the ends of the top bars, by which it will be seen that the bees have ample space to pass between the top bars to the surplus boxes. Having finished the frames I will proceed to the rest of the hive. I have varied my case from that used by Mr. Bingham, and as I prefer it, will describe it.

Here is a rough draft of the front of the hive, without the cover.

Figures 1 indicate the front board which is 2 in. longer than the frames over all, that is if your top bar is 20 inches, and your end pieces in., this would make the frame 20%, so this front board would be 2284 long. 2, 2, indicates the edge of the bottom board; 3, 3, are the cleats to which the bottom is nailed; 4, 4, are ends of % in. thick strips nailed on top and at each end of bottom board, these strips raise the frames and front board 36 in. from bottom board, and makes the entrance for the bees. The back board is precisely like the front board, so there is an entrance front and rear, but in practice we generally (except in warm weather) close the rear entrance by a spare strip sawed off the proper length; 5, 5, represents the ends of the side boards, and 6 is a rod of iron with thumb screws at each end to hold them together, precisely like the end boards of a common sugar box.

These sideboards are 6 in. wide and rabbeted on each edge as represented, and are as long as the bottom board is wide, say

20 or 24 in. Now this box screwed together with the requisite number of frames makes the hive proper. But the ten frames will not occupy all of the bottom board, so that the back board of the hive must be crowded close up to the frames, and by turning the thumb screw will remain them as tight as if nailed, but can be instantly loosened by loosening the screws. When you do not want boxes on the hive the cover can be put on and you have a hive complete. I always use a cloth over the frames so that the cover does not stick when being removed. Now when you wish to put on honey boxes, remove the cloth and put them directly on the frames-do not use a honey board. Get your brood and surplus boxes as near together as possible, but we have no case for the honey boxes. To have this, put up another box with the rods and screws exactly like the lower one for the hive proper, and it will fit like a glove, the rabbeted edges of the side boards holding it in place, and so on up, any number of stories you may desire.

I may not have made my description plain, but I think any of you with a mechanical turn of mind can get the idea. Its advantages are that it is simple and cheap, absolutely free of gimcracks and traps, yet possessing all the real requisites of a firstclass hive. It will be seen that only two kinds of pieces are necessary for the caseside boards and end boards. Of course you must have a bottom and top. The top is any plain cover that will project over all and which is water tight.

No hive in the world can beat them for box honey, for the reason that you can get the brood and honey boxes so near together. I do not speak at random, I know what I am talking about. Hundreds of these low hives are in use in this vicinity, and they are fast driving out all other hives, and when they become generally known the name of their inventor-Mr. Tracy Flynn Bingham-will hold a place among apiculturists, not inferior to Quinby or Langstroth. JULIUS TOMLINSON.

The Special Correspondent of the London Times says it would be difficult to find an apter illustration of the big way in which the Americans do things than that furnished by the "Centennial Newspaper Building," in the Exhibition grounds. Here you may see any one, or, if you like, all of the 8,129 newspapers published regularly in the U.S., and see them for nothing! It is about as cool and agreeable a place-quite apart from its literary attractions-as a visitor to the Exhibition could wish to be offered a chair in. He may at first wonder how, among 8,000 papers, among them such mighty sheets as the New York Herald, he is to get at the small, loved print of his home, thousands of miles away, it may be, over the Rocky Mountains. But the management is so simple that, by consulting the catalogue, or even without the aid of the catalogue, any one can at once find whatever paper he wants. They are pigeonholed on shelves in the alphabetical order of their States or Territories and their towns, the names of which are clearly labeled on the shelves. The proprietors of the Centennial Newspaper Building are advertising agents, the largest in all America-Messrs. G. P. Rowell & Co., of New York. Their enterprise will cost altogether about $20.000, or £4,000, including the building and the expenses of "running" it for six months. The 8,000 odd American newspapers are declared, by the same authority, to exceed "the combined issues of all the other nations of the earth."

Oneida Co., N. Y., Aug. 13, 1876.—“ In this section we are disappointed in our crop of honey. In June the prospect was good for a large yield, but some report now "not half a crop.' Bees have increased, in some cases doubled, and even more, but the surplus is light. Last spring I sold down to 80 stands and have now 156 full stocks-quite a number more than I had last year, and yet not so much honey as then."

R. BACON.

Lansing, Mich., Sep. 4, 1876.-" Our bees doing grandly. Never saw such a yield of fall honey; just pouring into comb. Extractor at such a time is invaluable. Some hives which I purposely left are utterly destitute of brood. Every comb filled with honey. All that I extracted have from 8 to 10 full combs of brood. Those who have not used the extractor please look out for spring dwindling. I would rather the honey would be extracted, even if thrown away." A. J. COOK.

Ghent, Ohio, Aug. 31, 1876.-"This season for bees is the best for surplus honey we have had for a long time in this neighborhood. The weather has been very warm. Have taken 2,000 lbs. comb honey, chiefly in small section frames, and 1,000 tbs. of extracted, and all of the best quality from 40 stands, and their increase. A few very weak in the spring produced no surplus, while others, good and strong, produced from 100 to 150 fbs. of comb honey. I have now 80 swarms in prime order. The honey season is pretty much over, but am yet taking out full frames and replacing with empty ones and Italianizing the hybrids. I have a few in box hives without surplus arrangements that I have made no account of, 3 not at home that are kept to increase from -they did well. Honey sold to date, $150 worth. Price: extracted, 15c., comb, 20 to 25c. per b. My neighbors' hives that are poorly managed swarm often with melting down of combs and honey. Much success to THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL."

THOMAS PIERSON.

Washington Co., Wis., Aug. 17, 1876."We have about 750 swarms of bees, mostly Italians. Last spring had about 400 swarms, got about 8,000 lbs. extracted honey, will get perhaps 200 fbs. box honey. They did not work much in boxes this year. They are doing well now for themselves for winter. We have kept bees for about 30 years: for 20 years quite extensively. We find, one year with another, it pays better than anything we know of. Would advise every one properly situated to keep a few swarms of bees, if only for their own use." J. & I. CROWFOOT.

Washtenaw Co., Mich., July 22, 1876."Yesterday and to-day has been very hot; 98 in the shade. The bees, although shaded with cloth shades and with plenty of room in the hive are hanging out, but are gathering considerable honey. I have extracted my first white clover and basswood_honey this year, 50 lbs. from one hive. I have managed to keep my bees from swarming more than twice, and the most of them have swarmed only once. I have 2 swarms from which I am trying to get 100 tbs. of box honey each. I took a queen cell out of a hive which had swarmed, and put it in a box. As soon as it hatched, or 2 or 3 hours after, I went to a queenless nucleus and lifted out a frame of comb covered with bees, and put the queen right on the comb among the bees, and then put the comb back in the hive; then I took a frame of brood and honey and put it in another nucleus, and on examining since the brood began to hatch I find 2 and 3 eggs in a cell, the cells are extended, or the caps are raised, something like drone brood. There are not many drones among the bees. What is the matter with them? I think a great deal of THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL, and would not keep bees without it. I have gathered a great deal of sound information from it this year. Please answer through the JOURNAL." J. H. MURDOCK.

[The statement is not very clear as to where the brood came from with the raised cells, but it looks like the work of a fertile worker.-ED.]

Cincinnati, Sept. 4, 1876.-DEAR EDITOR: "The honey season is over in this location. As it turned out we had one of the best seasons we have ever had. I took over 5,000 tbs. from 26 hives; had no swarms (that is natural ones), but have made several artificial ones since the honey ceased to come in. During 8 year's experience I have had but two swarms at the same time. Have had from 20 to 40 hives. We work for extracted honey altogether. We have no trouble in selling it here at home for 20c. and 25c. Must say I like THE AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL better than ever. Your manner of commenting on correspondence seems to me so much better than the old way of merely printing a letter and allowing the reader to draw his own conclusions. I have a case in my mind of a correspondent who wrote to the JOURNAL some 5 or 6 years ago, and gave a description of a wonderful moth-proof hive, made of sheet iron plastered over with cement or mortar. Now a modern intelligent bee-keeper with his frame hive just passed such an article by with a smile, but a friend of mine after reading it through thought it was just the

thing and was going to make some of them, but desisted on my advice. Now I thought it would have been much better if Mr. Wagner had told the writer in a kind way how far he was behind the times, and that the moth wasn't the terrible enemy now it once was. In fact, if it wasn't that I am asked so often, "don't the moth bother you," ,"I would hardly think of them. Then they tell how their father or grandfather used to go every morning and raise the hives and brush around them, and advise me to do likewise, as it must be a good thing." R. L. CURRY.

Outagamie Co., Wis., Aug. 8, 1876.—“My bees are doing well. Have increased from 10 to 28 colonies. Have extracted nearly 300 bs. Bees are now at work in boxes."

J. P. WHITE.

Wayne Co., N. Y., Aug. 1, 1876.-"Bees are not doing well here. It is too wet. There is but little surplus.' J. I. JOHNSON.

Melrose, Va., Aug. 3, 1876.-" Bees have done well this year so far; not many swarms but abundance of honey. I have 2 queens-mother and daughter-living peaceably together for two months; one producing hybrids, the other pure Italians. The old mother only laying a few eggs. She will play out soon. I have frequently had them live in this way, but not so long as these. The mother and daughter never disturb each other when superseding queen."

R. W. HARRISON.

Sauk Co., Wis., Aug. 18, 1876.-"Bees are gathering tolerably, but are swarming the second time. Aug. 1st they had the swarming fever as bad as ever, and as quick as they were strong enough to work in boxes they would swarm; quite a number have gone to the woods. One swarm, whose queen had a clipped wing, started for a tree 30 rods distant, and then returned. A few days ago I listened for the piping of a young queen, found they were bound to swarm, so I shook all the bees into another hive, and was picking out the queen cells, when all at once they swarmed from the hive I had shook them into. No basswood honey this year, in this section." W. PORTER.

Chillicothe, Mo., Aug. 25, 1876.-" You request bee-keepers to send you samples of such articles as they may think of interest to the fraternity. I send to-day what I think to be the best frame in use and as simple and cheap as any other. The underside of the top bar is beveled the entire length, giving it two important advantages: -First, the bevel edge, especially if rubbed with a piece of bees wax, makes a good comb guide. Second, when the projections are hung on hoop iron with saw-tooth notches the comb will be the exact distance desired from centre to centre, not only at the top but at the bottom also, for the bottom of the frame is held in its place by small wire staples in the end of the hive. The lower end of the upright stiles being tapering allows the frame to slip down between the staples without jogging. The inner bar being strong (%x%) makes it right for the use of the zig-zag transfering wire which accompanies the frame. The object in the zig-zag of the wire is to give it

spring so that any number may be used without loosening others; also to enable one wire to hold the edges of two pieces of comb. In using these zig-zag transferring wires it is not necessary to lift out the frames to take them off. Take the top end between the thumb and index finger, give it one-fourth turn and lift the wire out. I have tried every contrivance I have ever heard of and never found anything to give complete satisfaction in holding comb until I used this wire, and it was not satisfactory until I invented the zig-zag to it some five zig-zag W. GREENE. years ago."

[Tastes differ very much and there are perhaps not a majority who would prefer frames at fixed distances. If comb foundation comes into general use the underside of the top bar will be flat.-Ed.]

Winthrop, Iowa, Aug. 30, 1876.-"As there seems to be considerable discussion in regard to "fertile workers," I will give you my experience. In hive No. 1, I had failed in introducing a queen, and the bees started queen cells from larvæ, there being no eggs in the hive. These cells (three in number) soon hatched, and a few days after I found the hive under the management of a "fertile worker." My idea is that the larvæ being too far advanced to raise a perfect queen, nevertheless by means of royal jelly, etc., raised a fertile worker. In hive No. 2, I had introduced a queen which proved to be a drone layer, who soon swarmed leaving in the hive a great many queen cells of which I destroyed all but two of the finest. Shortly after these hatched, the hive was in possession of a fertile worker. Would like to hear the experience of others through the columns of the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL." C. A. FREDERICK.

[We never before heard of a colony swarming which had a drone layer. Is there no possibility of mistake?-ED.]

McHenry Co., Ill., Sept. 1, 1876.-"I believe I have never written anything for the AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. I have read a great deal of the writings of others in it, and have given nothing in return. I have kept more or less bees for ten years. I commenced last spring with 38 stocks and now I have 85, all in fine condition, excepting one. This has been an exceptionally good season, both for bees and honey. I allow natural swarming altogether, but I doubled a great many of my smaller swarms and put back a good many more. Have taken over 1,100 lbs. of box honey, and shall get 300 or 400 lbs. more, all put up in boxes 6x6x2 in., glass on both sides, and each box holding a comb of 2 lbs. weight. I winter my bees in the cellar, in tiers on shelves one above the other, and they do well in that shape and occupy less room than if spread out. Will you, or some of your correspondents tell me how many stocks are kept in one place, and can be kept with profit?"

J. L. ANDERSON.

[The number of stocks that will do well in one apiary depends of course somewhat on the locality. Adam Grimm kept about 100 in each of his apiaries, and perhaps in most cases that will not be far out of the way as a limit.-ED.]