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had there taught that it was not even in the power God Himself to annihilate anything existing. The application of this proposition to the Lord's Supper seemed to prove to him that the Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation was contrary to reason. We need not here inquire what other chain of thoughts helped to bring the reformer to this same conclusion, nor the exact meaning he gave to his own doctrine. The literary historian has little to do with theology; it is scarcely his office even to attempt a psychological explanation of the manner in which individuals have tried to make the incomprehensible credible to themselves. We shall therefore content ourselves here with the remark that, in Wyclif's mind, the Catholic doctrine of the Eucharist was not only contrary to reason, but also contrary to the Holy Scripture, and was as heretical as it was absurd; while his own view agreed in the main with the conception of Lessing in what he calls the doctrine of "pregnant symbols," and which, among the theories of the sixteenth century, came nearest to that of Luther.

In the summer of 1381 Wyclif published twelve theses on this subject, which he considered of the utmost importance, and, in academic fashion, declared himself ready to defend them.

The result of this step was to be foreseen. Though the Roman church accustoms its members to distinguish between the spiritual office and the person holding that office, .. between the man and the priest, yet it will be always easier for the people to distinguish between the priest and the doctrines he preaches, or the sacred acts which he performs. Ideas about the authority of the Pope and bishops were not so clearly developed and fixed in those days as they are now; but very decided views I were held on the significance of the sacraments. e attack was now being made against these views of the sacraments, which touched the very centre of the whole system of worship, and even of religion itself-in so far

An

Wyclif's mode of arguing does not very often allow us to see this connection; but we see it plain enough in the Trialogus, iv. 4 (ed. Lechler), p. 256: ponunt enim, quod mundum, quem Deus creavit, statim destruunt, quia materiam primam, quam Deus ordinavit esse perpetuam, destruunt, etc.

as it attempts to establish its supernatural belief upon mysticism.

The more conservative minds must have felt somewhat frightened at this mode of attack. Many who had hitherto encouraged Wyclif's efforts began to hesitate, and withdrew their support. His antagonists already rejoiced in the confidence of an easy victory. William Berton, the chancellor of the university, belonged to this party. He convoked an assembly of doctors of theology and law to consider Wyclif's theses. As was to be expected, the theses were condemned, and the condemnation was published in a mandate by Berton. Two propo sitions, which contained the substance of those theses, were declared contrary to the doctrines of the church; and their statement or defense at the university was prohibited under pain of suspension, major excommunication, and imprisonment, and whoever listened to their defense would be liable to the punishment of major excommunication.

This was a heavy blow to the reformer; for a moment he seemed to stagger; but he did not bend and was by no means terrified. In a case like the present the statutes of the university gave him the choice of appeal to the king or the Pope.* Wyclif appealed to the king. This time, however, the expected support of the crown was not forthcoming. His old patron, John of Gaunt, sent him word not to pursue the knotty question any farther. The accomplished publicist betook himself again to his pen; he wrote a Latin confession De Eu charistia, and a series of tracts and pamphlets.

The most popular of these pieces is that known as The Wyket, or little gate. From the gospel idea of the strait gate and narrow way that lead to life, the author passes to a discussion of the great temptation which threatens to mislead the faithful from the right way to the false law which is being imposed on the church, viz., the belief in transubstantiation. In nearly all his works written after this period Wyclif returns to this subject of transubstantiation, and his itinerant preachers discuss it in every form.

* See Matthew, noted before, p. xxv, note 4.

In the confusion and contests of this agitated period the position of Wyclif and his followers becomes clearer and clearer. They now form a distinct party, recognizable by a definite doctrine. Their connection with Rome seems almost severed; for Wyclif has now given up all respect for the papacy. Henceforth he not only opposes both the rival Popes with equal energy, but takes a delight in proving how the office of the bishop of Rome, which is in no sense legally different from that of a simple priest, is especially qualified, by its very organization, to form a tool in the hands of Satan. "Deputy of the devil," and particularly "Antichrist," are his constant and curt expressions for the Holy Father; and he plainly designates the papal legates as legati a latere Antichristi.

Besides the Roman "heresy" of transubstantiation, the Roman "Antichrist" forms a favorite topic in his tracts and even in his sermons. But the mendicant orders, whom he had indeed occasionally attacked at an earlier period, become, even more than the Pope, the constant butt of his polemics after 1381.

When we consider the bitter complaints and heavy accusations made against these orders in the satires of the fourteenth century, when we think of the mischief that they caused at the universities, especially at Oxford, according to the testimony of Archbishop Richard of Armagh, it is indeed astonishing that Wyclif should have waited so long before declaring war on these mendicant friars. For the way in which they, and particularly the Franciscans, observed, or rather did not observe, the rules of their order, was a regular distortion of the ideal of the gospel poverty which Wyclif had in mind, and which he exes pressly exhorted his own priests to follow. But it appears to have been the fixed policy of this thoughtful se zealot not to make more enemies than necessary at one and the same time. And, no doubt, in this case the forbearance was mutual; for the mendicant friars would take good care not to irritate unnecessarily such a famous scholar and influential writer. But the activity of the itinerant preachers now began to be a thorn in the flesh to the friars, They must have found some difficulty in

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restraining themselves up to the time when Wyclif had the boldness to publish his theses on the sacrament. By this action he supplied his enemies with arms; and they did not delay to employ them. Among the ten doctors of theology who helped to condemn the theses at Oxford, no fewer than six were mendicant friars; in the four orders the reformer found henceforth his most decided and active opponents.

Henceforth Wyclif also showed no more forbearance. All the weaknesses, vices, crimes, that his sharp eye had detected in them, were now passed in review. Everything that preceding satirists had censured in the mendicants now came up again in Wyclif, and a multitude of other things besides.,

The four orders are to him the new sects, their members, the arch-heretics, who prefer to the law of Christ their own new law, their "rule," which they do not even observe themselves; they impose fables upon the people and withhold from them, the Word of God; in their activity they lay fallow their parishes and impoverish their parishioners; they spread in the world a multitude of false doctrines, especially the great heresy of the altar sacrament. Wyclif renews this attack on every occasion-in learned treatises, in pamphlets, in sermons. When discussing almost any subject, he makes, by way of episode, an invective against the mendicant friars; and we seem to see a certain pleasure in his eye as soon as the occasion offers for entering on this familiar vein. He even devotes whole books and instruments of accusation to this same topic, and it is appalling how many heresies and errors he is able to bring up in these works against his opponents. His anger often makes him witty; he likes to combat his rivals with puns and nicknames. For the falsi fratres of the Bible, he borrows from Langland the pointed translation of "false freres." He continually designates the four orders by the, word CAYM (Cain), made up of their initials. Never were the mendicant monks attacked with so much force and virulence.

But Wyclif had little need to arouse new enemies, or to *Carmelites, Augustines, Jacobites (=Dominicans), Minorites (=Franciscans).

irritate the old ones to the uttermost. The conservative minds among the higher and middle classes were becoming more and more estranged from his cause. The great social rising of 1381 was not without its influence on this estrangement.

At the time when Wyclif was publishing his theses on the sacrament there was a great ferment going on among the peasants and day-laborers in Kent and Essex. The condition of these people was then pitiable indeed. The peasant class, especially, had to bear the brunt of all the consequences of pestilence and war and failure of crops and the age abounded in scourges of this kind— and the prolific activity of the new Parliament had only taken from the people the means of legal redress, without improving their condition. With the exactions of the landowners, the chicanery of the lawyers and judges, the merciless recovery of tithes and offerings by the clergy, and, in addition, the refined begging of the mendicants and pardoners, there was little need of the increased taxes to destroy completely whatever show of prosperity the peasants enjoyed. By all sorts of trickery many free tenants were reduced to laborers, many laborers to serfs; and yet they still retained a lively feeling of their dignity and manhood. The discontent and class-hatred grew from day to day. These poor people, who were in want even of the necessary bodily nourishment, were frequently deprived also of their spiritual consolations by their appointed pastors.

Other leaders, therefore, came forward from among the people eloquent and energetic men such as Wat Tyler, and dubious characters like the ex-priest, Jack Straw. These men knew how to stir the fire which was kindled by the reckless manner of collecting the poll-tax, and which burst into a flame almost simultaneously in Kent and Essex, and soon spread to the neighboring counties. The early success of the revolt, the cruel excesses of the insurgents, their march on London, the burning of palaces, manors, and abbeys, the murder of the archbishop of Canterbury, the dismay of the rulers and property owners, until they regained courage by the action of the Lord Mayor of London, who changed the